Formation of the state in ancient Greece. Abstract formation of statehood in ancient Greece Features of the formation of Greek states
AND Ancient Rome
Law in the states of the ancient world
The emergence of the state in the ancient world and the polis system. The history of civilization with its inherent state-legal organization of human life begins, as was shown in the previous section, with the Ancient East. Its new and higher level is associated with the development ancient (Greco-Roman) society, formed in southern Europe in the Mediterranean basin . Ancient civilization reached its apogee in I millennium BC - at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD The impressive successes of the Greeks and Romans in all areas date back to this time. human activity: literature and art, science and philosophy, democratic statehood and, of course, in the political and legal field.
Early centers of civilization and the first proto-states arose in the Mediterranean basin as early as in the III-II millennium BC., and not without the influence of the Eastern world. Subsequently, especially during the period of the “great colonization” ( VIII-VII centuries BC.), with the founding of a number of Greek settlements (cities) on the Asian coast, the interaction between the two civilizations became even closer and deeper. Trade, cultural and other connections between East and West were carried out through the Greek cities in Asia Minor - Miletus, Ephesus and others.
The growing political contacts of the Greeks, and later the Romans, with eastern countries allowed them to use overseas state and legal experience and seek more rationalistic approaches to lawmaking and politics.
The creation of the first proto-states, and then larger state formations in the south of the Balkan Peninsula and on the islands of the Aegean Sea in III-II millennium BC. was the result conquests Greek-Achaeans of the autochthonous population of this region (Pelasgians, Minoans). Conquest led to the mixing and crossing of different cultures, languages and peoples, which gave rise to the high Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, represented by a number of rising and declining states (Knossos, Mycenaean kingdoms, etc.).
Monarchical character these states, the presence of a large state-temple economy and land community testified to their similarities with typical eastern monarchies. The Cretan-Mycenaean traditions affected the subsequent statehood of the Achaean Greeks for a long time, which was characterized by the presence communal way of life associated with royal palace, who served as the supreme economic organizer .
One of the most important features in the formation of the state in Ancient Greece was that this process walked undulatingly, intermittently due to constant migration and movement of tribes. Thus, the invasion in the 12th century. BC. to Greece from the north of the Dorian tribes again threw back the entire natural course of the formation of statehood. The “Dark Ages” that followed the Dorian invasion (XII century BC - the first half of the 8th century BC), and then the Archaic period, again returned the Hellenes to tribal statehood and proto-states.
The combination of internal and external factors in the process of the genesis of the state in Greece showed that the emergence of the state in Athens did not occur in a “pure form”, i.e. directly from the decomposition of the clan system and class formation. The significant influence of external factors, in particular the Etruscan one, affected the genesis of the Roman state.
Features of the formation process statehood in the ancient world (unlike the countries of the East) was largely predetermined natural-geographical factors.
Greece, for example, was a mountainous country where there was little fertile land suitable for grain crops, especially those that would require collective irrigation work, as in the East.
In the ancient world, the eastern type of land community could not spread and survive, but in Greece favorable conditions developed for the development of crafts, in particular metalworking.
Already in the 3rd millennium BC. the Greeks widely used bronze, and in the 1st millennium BC. iron tools, which contributed to increasing the efficiency of labor and its individualization.
The widespread development of exchange and then trade relations, especially maritime trade, contributed to the rapid development market economy and the growth of private property. Increased social differentiation became the basis of an intense political struggle, as a result of which the transition from primitive states to highly developed statehood took place more rapidly and with more significant social consequences , than was the case in other countries of the ancient world.
Natural conditions influenced the organization of government in Greece in other ways. The mountain ranges and bays that dissected the sea coast, where a significant part of the Greeks lived, turned out to be a significant obstacle to the political unification of the country and even more so they did impossible and unnecessary centralized control.
Thus, natural barriers predetermined the emergence of numerous, relatively small in size and quite isolated from each other city-states - policies. The polis system was one of the most significant, almost unique features of statehood, characteristic not only of Greece, but of the entire ancient world.
The geographical and political isolation of the polis (on the mainland and on the islands) with a far-reaching division of labor made it dependent from the export of handicrafts, from the import of grain and slaves, i.e. from pan-Greek and international maritime trade. The sea was playing huge role in the life of the ancient (primarily Greek) polis. It ensured his connection with the outside world, with other policies, with colonies, with eastern countries, etc. The sea and maritime trade were linked into a single policy system all city-states created an open pan-Greek and Mediterranean political culture and civilization.
From the point of view of internal organization antique policy represented closed state. Full Athenian citizens, for example, were only those whose father and mother were citizens of Athens. The polis of the ancient Greeks was a civil and political community. But unconditional dominance in the polis world had different republican forms- aristocracy, democracy, oligarchy, plutocracy, etc.
The development of Greek society from patriarchal structures and proto-states of the Homeric era to classical slavery and the flourishing of ancient democracy has its own patterns in the development of political life and in the change in the very forms of organization of city-states.
IN end of the 2nd millennium BC in the Greek world there was comparatively general tendency towards strengthening the power of the king as a military leader, judge, supreme leader of the palace economy, etc.. In the methods of his rule more and more appeared despotic traits, inherent in the monarchs of antiquity, especially eastern ones. A similar picture can be seen several centuries later in Rome during the era of the kings.
The collapse of patriarchal-communal ties, on which the sole power of the king (basileus, rex) rested, growth of opposition on the part of aristocratic families with great wealth and social influence, resulted in almost the entire ancient world destruction of royal power, accompanied in a number of cases (as was the case in Rome with Tarquin the Proud) by the murder of the king himself.
The elimination of monarchy in the ancient world led to victory republican system, as well as to the final approval (before the era of crisis and decomposition of slave society) polis system of state organization. But in the early republican period democratic potential, inherent in the polis system, which provides elements of direct democracy (people's assemblies, etc.), not fully developed. The common people in the city-states, who had no political experience and drew their ideas about power from the patriarchal-religious past, gave up the reins in almost all ancient policies tribal, priestly and new propertied aristocracy.
This is precisely what state power was like in Athens the day before Solon's reforms, V early period patrician republic in Rome, etc. The further process of democratization of political life in the ancient city-states was accompanied by an intensification of the struggle between the aristocracy, which held power in its hands and sought to preserve the old polis order, and the people (demos), increasingly aware of their civil unity. The result of this struggle (eupatrides and demos in Athens, patricians and plebeians in Rome, etc.) was series of legislative reforms, undermining the monopoly of the aristocracy in government bodies and creating the basis for the development of democratic institutions.
In many Greek city-states, the final establishment of a democratic system was preceded by usurpation of power by individual tyrant rulers. Usually they came from an aristocratic environment, but used their power to undermine the old aristocratic and patriarchal order, to protect the interests of broad sections of the population of the polis. Regimes of personal power, called tyranny, established in Miletus, Ephesus, Corinth, Athens, Megara and contributed strengthening private property, eliminating the privileges of the aristocracy and establishing democracy as a form of state, which best reflected the general interests of the civil and political community.
TO VI-V centuries BC. Among the several hundred ancient Greek city-states, the two largest and most militarily powerful city-states came to the fore: Athens and Sparta. The entire subsequent history of statehood in Ancient Greece unfolded under the sign of the antagonism of these two policies. IN Athens, where the most complete development was achieved private property, slavery, market relations and where an integral civil community was formed, ancient democracy reached its peak and became a huge creative force.
In contrast to Athens Sparta went down in history as example of an aristocratic military camp state, which, in order to suppress the huge mass of the forced population (helots), restrained the development of private property and tried to maintain equality among the Spartiates themselves.
Thus, the rivalry between Athens and Sparta resulted in a kind of competition between two different civil and political communities in Greece. The confrontation of the “polis superpowers” drew the entire Greek world into the bloody and protracted Peloponnesian War, which resulted in the weakening of the entire polis system and the fall of democratic institutions. Ultimately, both Athens and Sparta fell prey to the Macedonian monarchy.
The cause of the death of ancient Greek statehood, in particular Athens, which became the ideal of a democratic state, was not so much slavery as internal weakness of the polis structure of the state itself. It consisted of pre-given territorial and political parameters, i.e. there was no room for political maneuver and for further progressive evolution.
TO I century BC. the policy system has exhausted itself Rome. The city-republic could not cope with slave uprisings and was unable to ensure internal civil unity. Under these conditions, the preservation of the republican system, designed to govern the city-state, became an anachronism. On change to the republic, which turned into the 1st century. BC. monarchy comes to the world power in the form empires.
The influence of the polis system over the long history of the Roman Republic was so great that during the first centuries (the period of the principate), emperors seeking to create a centralized bureaucratic monarchy could not free themselves from republican polis institutions for a long time.
The strengthening of the power of the late Roman emperors and the adoption of Christianity brought the final line under the polis order. In the very latest period of the Roman Empire, there was a final break with republican-police democracy, and features of medieval statehood became more and more apparent, especially in the eastern part of the empire.
Law in the states of the ancient world. Law, as one of the factors holding together civil society and the elements of its culture, did not immediately reach maturity and perfection in the era of antiquity. In the early stages its development in terms of the level of legal technology and the degree of development of the main institutions had many similarities with the legal systems of Eastern countries. The development of law in ancient Greece and Rome was carried out within separate policies, and the level of development of democratic institutions in individual city-states was reflected in law.
The approval of the policy system as a result intensified law-making activity and its gradual liberation from the religious-mythological shell. For changing unwritten customs, the interpretation of which was often arbitrarily carried out by the secular or Greek aristocracy, came law, who had secular character and usually expressed in writing. Thus, right in the ancient world it was authoritative and mandatory regulator of policy life devoid of any mystical or religious power.
The recognition of legislation, and not custom, as the main form of law-making (Greece), or its approval as one of the most important sources of law (Rome) was accompanied by codification developed in a more archaic era legal customs.
This is the oldest, according to Greek tradition, codification of law, carried out by Zaleukos in Locri (Italy), as well as the codification of Charondas in Catana (Sicily). Similar collections were compiled in other Greek city-states, including Athens at the end of the 7th century. BC. (Laws of Draco).
The beginning of a new democratic constitution in Athens, providing for a developed procedure for the adoption of laws by the people's assembly, was laid by the reforms Solon and Cleisthenes in the 6th century. BC. In Rome, traditional legal customs were processed and written down in the Laws of the XII Tables. These laws also provided for the rule that by law counts decision of the people's assembly.
As Solon noted, the life of society should be regulated by law and laws adopted by universal consent. In the Greek city-states, from childhood, citizens were raised to respect, and even deference, both to the laws and to the polis orders established in them. Socrates, who argued that the laws of the city go back to rational origins, promoted observance of the laws by all Athenians.
In Athens, where a democratic system of legislation was established, where right in the eyes of citizens was associated with reason and justice, it happened a kind of rule of law state, the benefits of which, however, could not be enjoyed by slaves and foreigners.
Even more so cult of law and respect for law developed into Roman society. Unconditional adherence to republican laws was for the Romans not only a legal obligation, but also a matter of honor.
The connection of the Roman Republican state with its own laws and law as a whole was reflected by the outstanding Roman jurist Cicero, who viewed the state not only as an expression of the common interests of all its members, but also as a union of many people “connected by agreement in matters of law.”
Thus, the idea of the rule of law originated in Republican Rome. It is no coincidence that it was in Roman society, where laws had long been considered sacred, that the most perfect legal system in the conditions of the ancient world was developed, which had a holistic and comprehensive character.
Roman law for the first time in history acted as systematic, carefully developed, strictly legal education. Classical Roman law is the pinnacle in the history of law of antiquity and the ancient world in general. It represents one of the greatest achievements of ancient culture, the influence of which on the subsequent development of European law and civilization can hardly be overestimated. It has acquired, to a certain extent, a timeless, ahistorical character.
Roman law can only be considered slave law with significant reservations. At first glance, it may seem so because it was formed and reached its apogee in a society based on the most developed classical slavery in the entire ancient world. But Roman law in the form in which it acquired global significance (primarily private law, which secures the interests of the individual, the private owner) represents generation of market relations and trade turnover.
In the early stages of history The Roman state, when many elements of patriarchal life were preserved in society, and commodity-money relations had not yet developed, Roman law was different traditionalism, formalism and complex rituals that slowed down economic turnover. The gradual process of transforming Rome from a city-republic into a gigantic empire at that time resulted not only in the growth of slavery, but also in commodity production, and, ultimately, in the creation of the most complex market economy in the entire history of the ancient world, which urgently required adequate legal regulation.
Force private property and the trade turnover built on it broke the outdated and restrictive legal forms. In their place was created new and technologically advanced law, capable of regulating the subtlest market relations and satisfying other needs of a developed civil society. Exactly in this form Roman law became a universal legal system, applicable in different historical conditions, regardless of the type of society, as long as it was based on private property and a market economy.
Together with Roman law, it entered the history of civilization Roman jurisprudence of great cultural value. The legal profession was born on the basis of Roman jurisprudence, and accordingly, special legal education originated from it.
Literature
Anners E. History of European law. M., 1994.
Ancient democracy in the testimony of contemporaries / Comp. L.P. Marinovich, G.A. Koshelenko. M., 1996.
History of state and law of foreign countries: Textbook / Under. ed. prof. K.I. Batyr. M., 2003. pp. 56-58.
History of state and law of foreign countries: Textbook / Ed. ed. O.I. Zhidkova, N.A. Krasheninnikova. In 2 parts. Part 1. M., 2001. 129-137.
Control questions
1. The emergence of statehood in the ancient world.
2. The main stages of the formation of a policy organization in the ancient world.
3. Features of the formation of the law of the ancient world.
Topic 4. State institutions and legal system
In Ancient Greece
The emergence and development of the state in Ancient Athens. Main features of Athenian law. Features of the state and legal system
in Ancient Sparta
The emergence and development of the state in Ancient Athens. The territory of Attica (the region of Greece where the Athenian state subsequently arose) was inhabited by end of the 2nd millennium BC four tribes, each of which had its own national assembly, council of elders and elected leader - Basileus. The transition to a productive economy with the individualization of labor led to the division of communal land into plots with hereditary family ownership. Consequently, the development of property differentiation with gradual the separation of the clan elite and the impoverishment of free community members, many of which turned into fetov - farm laborers or got caught for debt slavery. These processes were accelerated by the development of crafts and trade, which was favored by seaside location of Athens.
Wealthy families became the first owners of slaves, into whom prisoners of war were converted. TO beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Slavery was widespread, but the exploitation of slave labor had not yet become the basis of social production. Slaves were employed in housekeeping, crafts, and less often in field work. Their masters worked alongside them, although slaves performed the most difficult work. With time Slave work began to prevail, and slave owners, especially large ones, ceased to participate in productive labor. The tribal organization of power began to adapt to ensuring the interests of its members, the wealthy elite of the free, to the exploitation of slaves.
IN people's assembly increased influence of noble families, from their representatives was formed council of elders And basileus were elected. Primitive society turned into a political one, called military democracy.
Played an important role external factors. Prerequisites To unite the tribes of Attica under a single authority, there were: geographical conditions that required adaptation of farming to the conditions of the surrounding natural environment; depletion of local natural resources, intensified with the transition to a producing economy; the development of exchange and the associated intensification of intertribal contacts and, as a consequence, the weakening of consanguineous ties and the assimilation of clans and tribes; the need to resolve and eliminate emerging conflicts that go beyond tribal boundaries.
A consequence of this and at the same time an important stage in the long process of state formation in Athens were reforms associated with the name of the legendary hero Theseus. The reforms attributed to him are the result of gradual changes that occurred over a number of centuries and were completed by VIII century BC. One of these reforms was unification (Sinoikism) of tribes who inhabited Attica, into a single Athenian people. As a result of synoicism in Athens there was Council created, who managed the affairs of all four tribes. Athenian polis became territorial form of political organization of society.
The territorial organization of society urgently demanded centralized management. Previously, a fairly monolithic tribal society found itself in a difficult situation: inter-tribal and inter-tribal feuds still persisted, but new acute conflicts were already arising in connection with the increasing property differentiation in Attica. These conflicts created the basis for the formation of new mechanisms of power. A need arose for political (state) power, standing above society and capable of becoming, on the one hand, a means of agreement and reconciliation, and on the other, a force of subordination and enslavement. This began with the consolidation of not only social, but also political inequality between free, their division (also attributed to Theseus) into eupatrids - noble, geomors - farmers And demiurges - artisans.
TO eupatrids, the tribal elite, were given the exclusive right to occupy public positions, which led to further separation public authority from the population.
Geomores And demiurges together with the merchants and the poor, who made up the majority of the free, were gradually removed from the direct active management of public affairs. They retained only the right to participate in the national assembly, the role of which at that time had significantly declined.
At the same time, the situation of small landowners became increasingly difficult. They went bankrupt and were forced to mortgage their land for debt. Along with the pledge of land, there arose debt bondage, under the terms of which a faulty debtor could be sold into slavery abroad.
Archons and the Areopagus. Eupatrides, relying on their wealth and exclusive right to occupy public positions, gradually limit the power of the basileus associated with the traditions of tribal democracy. Its functions are transferred to new officials elected from the eupatrids - to the archons. At first, the position of archon was for life, then it was limited to a ten-year term. WITH VII century BC. began to be elected nine archons for a period of one year. The College of Archons not only took over the military, priestly and judicial functions of the basileus, but also over time took into its own hands the entire leadership of the country.
At the same time, in the 8th century BC., another new public administration body emerged - Areopagus. Replacing the council of elders, the Areopagus elected and controlled the archons, as well as the popular assembly, and exercised the highest judicial power. The Areopagus included all former and current archons, i.e. representatives of eupatrids.
Attic society turned into political society- a society under power that has emerged from it and stands above it. The former syncretism (non-dividedness) of society and power is coming to an end.
At the same time, another process characteristic of the emergence of the state developed - territorial division of the population. IN VII century BC. the country was divided into districts - navkrariya, whose residents, regardless of tribal affiliation, were obliged to build and equip a warship at their own expense, as well as provide a crew for it.
Reforms of Solon and Cleisthenes. TO VI century BC. An extremely difficult situation has developed in Athens. The development of commodity-money relations led to further social stratification of the free population. Among the eupatrids and geomors, rich landowners stand out, some of the eupatrids become poor, and the geomors turn into farm laborers cultivating someone else's land, receiving 1/6 of the harvest for this, or fall into debt bondage, lose their freedom and are sold into slavery abroad. Growing economic role the wealthy trade and craft elite of the townspeople, still excluded from power. The number of poor Fet people is also growing. The position of medium and small landowners and artisans is becoming increasingly unstable. As a result, a whole complex of contradictions arises among the free - between the rich and impoverished eupatrides, who still hold power, and the rich among landowners, traders and artisans, striving for power and taking advantage of the discontent of the poor, middle and small owners.
To mitigate these contradictions and unite all free people into a single ruling class, profound social and political transformations were required. He started them Solon, elected archon in 594 BC Although Solon was a eupatride, he became rich through trade and was trusted among the general population. Home the goal of Solon's reforms was to reconcile the interests of various warring factions of free. Therefore, they were of a compromise nature.
Solon's reforms were an important stage in the formation of the state in Athens, and their results can be compared with a political revolution. First of all, Solon:
1) spent sysachphia- debt reform, in essence - direct intervention in property relations. The debt of the poor was cancelled. Athenians who were enslaved for debt were freed, and those sold abroad for debt were ransomed. Debt slavery was abolished in Athens;
2) installed maximum size of land holding;
3) allowed free purchase and sale of land and division of land holdings in the interests of wealthy Athenians ;
4) spent qualification reform, aimed at destroying the hereditary privileges of the nobility, replacing the privileges of origin with the privileges of wealth. Solon secured the division of citizens four categories based on property;
The richest citizens were classified in the first category, the less wealthy in the second, etc. Each rank had certain political rights: public positions could only be held by citizens of the first three ranks, and the position of archon (and therefore member of the Areopagus) only by citizens of the first rank. The poor, who were in the lowest, fourth category, were still deprived of this right. But they could participate in the national assembly, whose role was increasing. The assembly began to develop laws, elect officials and receive reports from them.
5) created new judicial body - helium, to which any Athenian citizen could be elected, regardless of his property status, which was a concession to the poor;
6) established new governing body- Council of Four Hundred, elected from citizens of the first three categories, 100 people from each tribe, where tribal traditions and the influence of the eupatrids were still preserved.
The reforms dealt a blow to the clan organization of power and the privileges of the tribal aristocracy. They were an important stage in the formation of political organization in Athens. But the compromise nature of the reforms prevented the resolution of acute contradictions. The reforms caused discontent among the clan aristocracy and did not completely satisfy the demos. The struggle between them continued and after some time led to establishment of the tyranny of Lysistratus, and then his sons (560-527 BC), who consolidated the successes of the demos in the fight against the aristocracy and strengthened political system, created by Solon.
The existing governing bodies continued to function, but now under the control of the tyrant who had seized power. Tyrant in Athens was considered illegitimate ruler not necessarily establishing a brutal regime. Lysisstratus eased the situation of small landowners by providing them with credit. An active foreign policy and the creation of a navy attracted Athenian merchants to his side. The large scale of construction of public buildings that beautified the city provided a means of subsistence for the poor. Compliance with the laws in force in Athens also played an important role.
However, these activities required ever increasing Money, the replenishment of which was entrusted to the rich Athenians, which caused their discontent. With the support of Sparta, fearing the strengthening of Athens , tyranny was overthrown. The subsequent attempt by the aristocracy to seize power ended in failure. Relying on the poor, the rich trade and craft elite of the Athenian slave owners, headed Cleisthenes, expelled the Spartiates and secured her victory new reforms.
Cleisthenes' reforms held in 509 BC, liquidated in Athens remnants of the clan system. They included:
1) destruction of the old division of the population into four tribes;
Attica was divided into 10 territorial phyla, each of which included three territories (tritia) located in different places - urban, coastal and agricultural. They were divided, in turn, into demes. This structure of phyla undermined the political positions of the landed aristocracy, since the first two territories were dominated by the trade and craft layers of slave owners.
The peasantry was freed from the influence of ancient tribal traditions on which the authority of the nobility was based; those who were not part of the local tribal organization also gained access to participate in political positions. The territorial principle of dividing the population replaced the consanguineous principle.
2) abolition Council of Four Hundred and on the basis of the newly created territorial organization of the population, the establishment Council of Five Hundred;
The Council of Five Hundred was formed from representatives of 10 philes, 50 people from each, and directed the political life of Athens in the period between convocations of the national assembly, carrying out the execution of its decisions.
3) creation college of ten strategists;
The board of ten strategists was also staffed taking into account the territorial organization of the population: one representative from each phylum. Initially, the strategoi had only military functions, but later they pushed the archons into the background and became the highest officials of the Athenian state.
4) introduction into the practice of people's assemblies of a special procedure, called ostracism.
Every year a national assembly was convened, which determined by voting whether there were any persons among the fellow citizens who were dangerous to the state. If such persons were named, the meeting was convened a second time, and each participant wrote on the ostrakon (clay shard) the name of the one who, in his opinion, was dangerous. Anyone convicted by a majority vote was removed from Attica for a period of 10 years. Ostracism, initially directed against the clan aristocracy, was subsequently used in the political struggle between various factions that existed in Athenian society.
Cleisthenes' reforms completed the long process of state formation in Ancient Athens.
The differentiation of power functions that arose after Theseus led to the organization of bodies for their implementation. As a result, a special and permanently operating apparatus for exercising political power. In parallel, there was a process of this apparatus acquiring a monopoly of power over society. Monopolization of the right to exercise power functions became a legitimate right to use coercion. Political power began to be exercised in the form of state power, became state power, and the apparatus for its implementation became the state apparatus. As a result, arose in Athens slave state in the form of a democratic republic.
The Athenian state in the V-IV centuries. BC. In the first half of the 5th century. BC. Athens became one of the leading states of the Greek world. This was facilitated by the victory of the Greek states in Greco-Persian wars ah, the intensive economic development of Athens and the strengthening of its democratic system. The union of Greek states formed during the Greco-Persian Wars was initially led by Sparta. By the 70s, when hostilities were transferred to the sea, the leadership of the alliance passed to Athens. IN 478 BC was educated Delian Maritime League (Symmachia), led by Athens. The union included 140-160 Greek states, which equipped warships and made contributions (foros) to the union treasury. The command of the fleet was entrusted to Athens.
Over time, the construction of the fleet was transferred to Athens, the treasury of the union was transferred there from Delos, and the foros turned into a tax collected from the allies and was at the uncontrolled disposal of Athens. The dissatisfaction of the allies was suppressed by force, Athenian settlements (cleruchia) began to be created on their territory, which turned practically into military garrisons, Athenian officials were sent to many allied states; the Athenian courts took over the consideration of some cases of citizens of the allied states, and the Council of Five Hundred began to decide the affairs of the union.
The hegemony of Athens in the alliance turned it into a powerful Athenian arche - power, which mercilessly exploited its allies, enriched itself at their expense and kept them in the alliance by force.
The change in the foreign policy position of Athens and their enrichment entailed changes in socio-political relations. Ephialtes Almost completely deprived the Areopagus of political power, transferring its main functions to the people's assembly, the Council of Five Hundred and the Helieia. The Areopagus retained only some judicial and religious functions.
With name Pericles connected the rise of Athenian democracy. Under him, Solon's qualification reform lost its significance, since the possibility of holding government positions was recognized for all full-fledged citizens. To encourage low-income citizens to participate in active political life, remuneration was introduced for holding public office.
To replace the patriarchal ra
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
State educational institution
Higher professional education
"Ivanovo State University"
Faculty of Law
Department of Theory and History of State and Law
Comparative government essay on the topic
"The formation of statehood in Ancient Greece."
Performed:
1st year student, group 4
Day department
Full-time education
Vinogradova N.V.
Ivanovo 2011
Plan:
- Features of the formation of statehood in Ancient Greece
Pre-State Period in Ancient Greece
Stages of development of statehood
Homeric period
Prerequisites for the formation of policies in Ancient Greece
Archaic and classical period
Hellenistic period
Bibliography
Formation of statehood in Ancient Greece
1. Features of the formation of statehood in Ancient Greece
One of the most important features of the formation of the state in Ancient Greece was that this process, due to the constant migration of tribes, proceeded in waves, intermittently, and the process of formation of statehood was largely determined by natural and geographical factors (Greece was a mountainous country where there were few fertile and suitable for grain land crops, especially those that would require, as in the East, collective irrigation work). Greece has favorable conditions for the development of crafts, in particular metalworking. Already in the 3rd millennium BC. the Greeks widely used bronze, and in the 1st millennium BC. iron tools, which contributed to increasing the efficiency of labor and its individualization. The widespread development of exchange and then trade relations, especially maritime trade, contributed to the rapid development of a market economy and the growth of private property. Increased social differentiation became the basis of an intense political struggle, as a result of which the transition from primitive states to highly developed statehood took place more rapidly and with more significant social consequences than took place in other countries of the ancient world. Natural conditions influenced the organization of state power in Greece in other respects. The mountain ranges and bays that dissected the sea coast, where a significant part of the Greeks lived, turned out to be a significant obstacle to the political unification of the country and, even more so, made centralized government impossible and unnecessary. Thus, the natural barriers themselves predetermined the emergence of numerous, relatively small in size and quite isolated from each other city-states - policies.
N The most interesting and studied is the process of state formation in two famous Greek city-states - ancient Athens and Sparta. The first was a model of slave-owning democracy, the second - of aristocracy.
2. Pre-state period in Ancient Greece
Marx and Engels call the pre-state period in the history of the tribal system military democracy. This term was introduced by the American historian L. Morgan to characterize ancient Greek society during the period of its transition from a tribal community to a neighboring one. Military democracy occurs at that period of history when the ancient clan organization is still in full force, but property inequality has already appeared with the inheritance of property by children, the nobility and royal power have arisen, and the transformation of prisoners of war into slaves has become common. The system of military democracy has a wide variety of forms. In some cases, it is dependent on the polis structure, in other cases, military democracy arises in conditions of a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. By all indications, the period of military democracy is the last period of the primitive communal system.
3. Stages of development of statehood:
The first state formations on the territory of Greece appeared in the 2nd millennium BC. The polis stage of the history of Ancient Greece is divided into four periods:
- Homeric period(XI-IX centuries BC), characterized by the dominance of tribal relations, which begin to decompose towards the end of this period.
Archaic period(VIII-VI centuries BC), within the framework of which the formation of a class society and a state in the form of policies takes place.
Classical period(V-IV centuries BC), is characterized by the flourishing of the ancient Greek slave state, the polis system.
Hellenistic period(IV-II centuries BC). The Greek polis, having exhausted its capabilities, entered a period of crisis, the overcoming of which required the creation of new state entities.
- The Hellenistic states were formed as a result of the conquest of Attica by Alexander the Great. The Hellenistic states, combining the beginnings of the Greek polis system and ancient Eastern society, opened a new stage in ancient Greek history.
- 4. Homeric period.
- In ancient Greek society, as Homer depicts it, complex processes take place. At this time, the land was still tribal property and was provided to clan members only for use. The best lands were owned by representatives of the noble and wealthy. The population was united into rural communities, isolated from each other and occupying a small area. The economic and political center of the community was the city. The permanent body of power was the council of elders - bule. Primitive democracy was still preserved, and popular assemblies played a significant role. Homeric Greece was fragmented into small self-governing districts, from which the first city-states - policies - were subsequently formed.
- The prerequisites for the transition from the Homeric period to the archaic period were the formation and development of policies in Ancient Greece.
- 5. Prerequisites for the formation of policies in Ancient Greecethe following can be considered:
- Of the many circumstances that influenced the birth and formation of the policy, the following stand out as the most important:
- The death of the Mycenaean palace centers freed rural communities from the heavy tutelage of the monarchy and the oppression of a hypertrophied bureaucratic apparatus.
Traditional stimulating influence of the landscape. Greece is a small country divided by mountain ranges, with sea bays separating the southern part from the middle. Such geographical features encouraged the particularization of the Greek world, the autonomous existence of individual communities, and the unification of tribes around a fortified center. Isolation from the mass of villages of one, more fortified by nature than others, which becomes a political center.
Renewal of the progressive economic and social movement among the Greeks. Acceleration of technical progress, intensification of production, in-depth division of labor, formation of crafts and trade into independent industries.
Strengthening the individual economy and establishing the principle of private property.
- The development of the policy took place along three main lines:
- from rural community settlement to city
from late tribal society to class society of the ancient type.
from a late-clan community to a state with a sovereign people.
Starting from the 8th century of the Archaic period and ending with the 4th century of the classical period, the two largest and militarily strongest city-states came to the fore among several hundred ancient Greek city-states: Athens and Sparta. The entire subsequent history of statehood in Ancient Greece unfolded under the sign of the antagonism of these two policies. In Athens, where private property, slavery, and market relations were most fully developed, where a civil community was formed that united its members, despite all the differences in their property and political interests, into a single integral whole, ancient democracy reached its peak and became, as subsequent history testifies, enormous creative power. In contrast to Athens, Sparta went down in history as an example of an aristocratic military camp state, which, in order to suppress the huge mass of the forced population (helots), artificially restrained the development of private property and unsuccessfully tried to maintain equality among the Spartiates themselves. Thus, the rivalry between Athens and Sparta resulted in a kind of competition between two different civil and political communities in Greece. What is instructive in the history of ancient Greek statehood is that the confrontation between the two “police superpowers” drew the entire Greek world into the bloody and protracted Peloponnesian War, which resulted in the weakening of the entire polis system and the fall of democratic institutions. Ultimately, both Athens and Sparta fell prey to the Macedonian monarchy. The reason for the death of ancient Greek statehood, in particular Athens, which became the ideal of a democratic state based on the autonomy of the private owner as a full member of the civil community, is not so much slavery as the internal weakness of the polis structure of the state itself. This device, associated with pre-given territorial and political parameters, had no room for political maneuver and for further progressive evolution.
7. Hellenistic period
The very development of Greek society from patriarchal structures and proto-states of the Homeric era to classical slavery and the flourishing of ancient democracy reveals some patterns in the development of political life and in the change of the very forms of organization of city-states. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, as evidenced by the Homeric epic, in the Greek world there was a relatively general tendency towards strengthening the power of the king as military leader, judge, supreme leader of the palace household, etc. In the methods of his rule, more and more despotic features inherent in ancient monarchs, especially eastern ones, appeared. The collapse of patriarchal-communal ties, on which the sole power of the king (basileus) relied, and the growth of opposition from aristocratic families with great wealth and social influence, resulted in the destruction of royal power throughout almost the entire ancient world, accompanied in some cases by the murder of the king himself. The liquidation of the monarchy led to the victory of the republican system in the ancient world, as well as to the final establishment (before the era of crisis and decomposition of the slave society) of the polis system of state organization. But in the early republican period, the democratic potential inherent in the polis system, which included elements of direct democracy (people's assemblies, etc.), did not receive full development. The common people in the city-states, who had no political experience and drew their ideas about power from the patriarchal-religious past, ceded the reins of government in almost all ancient city-states to the clan, priestly and new propertied aristocracy. This is precisely what state power was like in Athens on the eve of Solon’s reforms. The further process of democratization of political life in ancient city-states was accompanied by an intensification of the struggle between the aristocracy, which held power in its hands and sought to preserve the old polis orders, and the people (demos), increasingly aware of their civil unity. The result of this struggle (eupatrides and demos in Athens) was a series of legislative reforms that undermined the monopoly of the aristocracy in government bodies and created the basis for development democratic institutions. In many Greek city-states the final approval democratic system was preceded by the usurpation of power by individual tyrant rulers, usually coming from an aristocratic background, but using their power to undermine the old aristocratic and patriarchal order, to protect the interests of broad sections of the population of the polis. Such regimes of personal power, called tyranny, were established in Miletus, Ephesus, Corinth, Athens, Megara and contributed to the strengthening of private property and the elimination of the privileges of the aristocracy, the establishment of democracy as a form of state that best reflects the general interests of the civil and political community.
In conclusion, we can say that the state of Ancient Greece arose from the tribal system already in a very high form of development, in the form of a democratic republic.
Bibliography
- Batyr K.I. General History of State and Law. M., 1998.
History of state and law of foreign countries./ Ed. Zhidkova O.A., Krasheninnikova N.A. M., 1998.
Kosarev A.I. History of state and law of foreign countries. M., 2003.
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The most ancient states arose about 5 thousand years ago in the valleys large rivers: Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus, Ganges, Yangtze, etc., i.e. in areas of irrigated agriculture, which made it possible, by increasing yields, to sharply - tenfold - increase labor productivity. It was there that the conditions for the emergence of statehood were first created: the material opportunity arose to maintain a management apparatus that did not produce anything, but was necessary for the successful development of society. Irrigated agriculture required a huge amount of work: the construction of canals, dams, water lifts and other irrigation structures, maintaining them in working order, expanding the irrigation network, etc. All this determined, first of all, the need to unite communities under a single command and centralized management, since the volume public works significantly exceeded the capabilities of individual tribal formations. At the same time, all this determined the preservation of agricultural communities and, accordingly, the social form of ownership of the main means of production - land.
At this time, along with economic development, social changes also occur. Since, as before, everything produced is socialized and then redistributed, and this redistribution is carried out by leaders and elders (who are later joined by clergy), it is in their hands that the public wealth settles and accumulates. Tribal nobility arise and such social phenomenon, as “power-property”, the essence of which is the right to dispose of public property by virtue of being in a certain position (by leaving the position, a person loses this “property”) 1. Along with this, due to the specialization of management and the increase in its role, the share of tribal nobility in the distribution of the social product is gradually increasing. Managing becomes profitable. And since, along with the dependence of everyone on the leaders and elders “by position,” economic dependence also appears, the continuing “election” of these persons becomes more and more formal. This leads to the further assignment of positions to certain individuals, and then to the emergence of inheritance of positions.
Thus, the eastern (or Asian) way of forming statehood was distinguished, first of all, by the fact that political domination arose on the basis of the exercise of some social function, a public position. Within the community, the main purpose of power became the management of special reserve funds, in which most of the social surplus product was concentrated. This led to the identification within the community of a special group of officials performing the functions of community administrators, treasurers, controllers, etc. Often administrative functions were combined with religious functions, which gave them special authority. Deriving a number of benefits and advantages from their position, community administrators were interested in securing this status for themselves and sought to make their positions hereditary. To the extent that they succeeded, the communal “bureaucracy” gradually turned into a privileged closed social stratum - the most important element of the emerging apparatus of state power. Consequently, one of the main prerequisites for both state formation and the formation of classes “according to the Eastern type” was the use by the ruling strata and groups of the established apparatus of management and control over economic, political and military functions.
Administrative-state structures, the emergence of which was strictly determined by economic necessity, take shape before private property arises (mainly in land). For centuries, the despotic state was not only an instrument of class domination, but also itself served as a source of class formation, the emergence of various privileged groups and strata. In the East, it was not the means of production themselves that were usurped, but their management.
The economy was based on state and public forms of ownership. There was also private property - the top of the state apparatus had palaces, jewelry, slaves, but it (private property) did not have a significant impact on the economy: a decisive contribution to social production contributed by the labor of “free community members. In addition, the “private” nature of this property was very conditional, since the official usually lost his position along with the property, and often along with his head.
It did not have a serious impact on the economy and private property of other groups: merchants and urban artisans. Firstly, she, like her owners, was under the undivided power of the monarch. Secondly, it also did not play a decisive or even important role: the property of merchants was associated with the sphere not of production, but of distribution, while artisans living in cities made a noticeably smaller contribution to social production than communities, especially since the composition of the latter There were many artisans included.
Gradually, as the scale of collective cooperation grows labor activity, the “rudiments of state power” that originated in tribal collectives are transformed into bodies of management and domination over the sums of communities, which, depending on the breadth of economic goals, develop into micro- or macrostates, united by the power of centralized power. In these regions, as already mentioned, it acquires a despotic character. Her authority was quite high for a number of reasons: her achievements in economic activity were explained solely by her ability to organize, desire and ability to act for general social, supra-group purposes; coercion was also colored ideologically, and primarily in religious forms - the sacralization of power: “power from God”, the ruler is the bearer and exponent of “God’s grace”, a mediator between God and people.
As a result, a structure similar to a pyramid arises: at the top (instead of a leader) there is an unlimited monarch, a despot; below (instead of the council of elders and leaders) are his closest advisers, viziers; then - officials of lower rank, etc., and at the base of the pyramid - agricultural communities, which gradually lost their tribal character. The main means of production - land - is formally owned by the communities, and the community members are considered free, but in fact, in reality everything has become state property, including the personality and life of all subjects who find themselves in the undivided power of the state, personified in the bureaucratic bureaucratic apparatus headed by the absolute monarch.
The eastern states differed significantly from each other in some of their features. In some, like China, slavery was domestic and family in nature. In others, like Egypt, there were many slaves who, along with the community members, made a significant contribution to the economy. However, unlike European, ancient slavery, which was based on private property, in Egypt slaves were overwhelmingly the property of the state (pharaoh) or temples.
At the same time, everything eastern states had a lot in common in the main. All of them were absolute monarchies, despotisms, and had a powerful bureaucracy; their economy was based state uniform ownership of the main means of production (“power-property”), and private property was of secondary importance.
The eastern path of the emergence of the state was a smooth transition, the development of a primitive, tribal society into a state. The main reasons for the emergence of the state here were 1: the need for large-scale irrigation work in connection with the development of irrigated agriculture; the need to unite significant masses of people and large territories for these purposes; the need for a unified, centralized leadership of these masses.
The state apparatus arose from the apparatus of managing tribal associations. Standing out from society, the state apparatus became largely opposed to it in its interests, gradually became isolated from the rest of society, and turned into the ruling class, exploiting the labor of community members.
It should also be pointed out that Eastern society was stagnant, stagnant: for centuries, and sometimes millennia, it practically did not develop. Thus, the state in China arose several centuries earlier than in Europe (in Greece and Rome). Although there were significant social upheavals in China (foreign conquests, peasant uprisings, including victorious ones, etc.), however, they only led to a change of reigning dynasties, while society itself until the beginning of the 20th century. remained largely unchanged.
African states were formed mainly according to the same “scenario”, however, researchers point to some features of the early African state that distinguish it from the state of “eastern despotism”: the supreme power was not hereditary, but elective and hereditary, the management system was built on the gerontocratic principle for the lower levels, at aristocratic (meritocratic) - for higher ones. In addition, the rulers of the early states of Africa were bound by a system of restrictions: in movement, in contacts with the population, which stemmed from ideas about their sacredness in making the most important decisions, since there was a certain counterbalance to their power in the form of a council of representatives of the clan nobility.
In general, in this region of the globe, the process of monopolization of the function of public management by the community elite, i.e. the emergence of the state, in the absence of private ownership of the main means of production and the division of society into classes, was typical, determining in the formation of statehood, the natural course of which was disrupted as a result of the colonization of the mainland.
New and higher stage of development human civilization associated with the development of ancient (Greco-Roman) society, which formed in the south of Europe in the Mediterranean basin. Ancient civilization reached its apogee and greatest dynamism in the 1st millennium BC. - at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD The impressive successes of the Greeks and Romans in all spheres of human activity, including political and legal, date back to this time. It is to antiquity that humanity owes many masterpieces of literature and art, achievements of science and philosophy, and unique examples of democratic statehood.
The Greco-Roman world did not develop out of nowhere, not in isolation, not like a “closed society.” Early centers of civilization and the first proto-states arose in the Mediterranean basin as early as the 3rd-2nd millennium BC, and not without a noticeable influence from the Eastern world. Subsequently, especially during the period of the “great colonization” (VIII-VII centuries BC), with the founding of a number of Greek settlements (cities) on the Asian coast, the interaction between the two civilizations became even closer and deeper. The Greek cities in Asia Minor - Miletus, Ephesus and others - became open gates through which trade, cultural and other connections between the then East and West were carried out. The ever-increasing political contacts of the Greeks, and later the Romans, with eastern countries allowed them to use and rethink foreign, overseas state and legal experience, and seek their own more rationalistic approaches to lawmaking and politics.
The creation of the first proto-states, and then A larger state formations in the south of the Balkan Peninsula and on the islands of the Aegean Sea in the III-II millennium BC. was the result of the conquest of the autochthonous population of this region (Pelasgians, Minoans) by the Achaean Greeks. The conquest led to the mixing and crossing of different cultures, languages and peoples, which gave rise to the high Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, represented by a number of rising and falling states (Knossos, Mycenaean kingdom, etc.).
The monarchical nature of these states, the presence of a large state-temple economy and a land community testified to their similarity with typical eastern monarchies. The Cretan-Mycenaean traditions affected the subsequent statehood of the Achaean Greeks for a long time, which was characterized by the presence of a communal structure associated with the royal palace, which served as the supreme economic organizer.
The peculiar combination of internal and external factors in the process of the genesis of the state in Greece makes the thesis, widespread in Russian literature, that the emergence of the state in Athens occurs in its “pure form”, i.e. directly from the decomposition of the clan system and class formation. The significant influence of external factors, in particular the Etruscan one, which has not yet been fully studied, also affected the genesis of the Roman state.
The peculiarities of the process of formation of statehood in the ancient world (unlike the countries of the East) were largely predetermined by natural and geographical factors. Greece, for example, was a mountainous country where there was little fertile land suitable for grain crops, especially those that would require collective irrigation work, as in the East. In the ancient world, the eastern type of land community could not spread and survive, but in Greece favorable conditions developed for the development of crafts, in particular metalworking. Already in the 3rd millennium BC. the Greeks widely used bronze, and in the 1st millennium BC. iron tools, which contributed to increasing the efficiency of labor and its individualization. The widespread development of exchange and then trade relations, especially maritime trade, contributed to the rapid development of a market economy and the growth of private property. Increased social differentiation became the basis of an intense political struggle, as a result of which the transition from primitive states to highly developed statehood took place more rapidly and with more significant social consequences than took place in other countries of the ancient world.
Natural conditions influenced the organization of state power in Greece in other respects. The mountain ranges and bays that dissected the sea coast, where a significant part of the Greeks lived, turned out to be a significant obstacle to the political unification of the country and, even more so, made centralized government impossible and unnecessary. Thus, the natural barriers themselves predetermined the emergence of numerous, relatively small in size and quite isolated from each other city-states - policies. The polis system was one of the most significant, almost unique features of statehood, characteristic not only of Greece, but of the entire ancient world.
The geographical and political isolation of the polis (on the mainland and on the islands) with a far-reaching division of labor made it dependent on the export of handicrafts, on the import of grain and slaves, i.e. from pan-Greek and international maritime trade. The sea played a huge role in the life of the ancient (primarily Greek) polis. It ensured his connection with the outside world, with other policies, with colonies, with eastern countries, etc. The sea and maritime trade linked all city-states into a single polis system and created an open pan-Greek and Mediterranean political culture and civilization.
From the point of view of its internal organization, the ancient polis was a closed state, outside of which were not only slaves, but also foreigners, even people from other Greek polis. For the citizens themselves, the polis was a kind of political microcosm with its own sacred forms of political structure for a given city, traditions, customs, law, etc. Among the ancient Greeks, the polis replaced the land-communal collectives that had disintegrated under the influence of private property with a civil and political community. Great differences in economic life, in the severity of political struggle, in the historical heritage itself were the reason for the great diversity in the internal structure of city-states. But various republican forms had an absolute predominance in the polis world - aristocracy, democracy, oligarchy, plutocracy, etc.
The very development of Greek society from the patriarchal structures and proto-states of the Homeric era to classical slavery and the flourishing of ancient democracy reveals some patterns in the development of political life and in the change in the very forms of organization of city-states. At the end of the 11th millennium BC, as evidenced by the Homeric epic, in the Greek world there was a relatively general tendency towards strengthening the power of the king as a military leader, judge, supreme leader of the palace economy, etc. In the methods of his rule, the despotic features inherent in ancient monarchs, especially eastern ones, increasingly appeared. A similar picture can be seen several centuries later in Rome during the era of the kings.
The collapse of patriarchal-communal ties, on which the sole power of the king (basileus, rex) was based, and the growth of opposition on the part of aristocratic families with great wealth and social influence, resulted in the destruction of royal power in almost the entire ancient world, which was accompanied in a number of cases (as was in Rome with Tarquinius the Proud) by the murder of the king himself.
The liquidation of the monarchy led to the victory of the republican system in the ancient world, as well as to the final establishment (before the era of crisis and decomposition of the slave society) of the polis system of state organization. But in the early republican period, the democratic potential inherent in the polis system, which included elements of direct democracy (people's assemblies, etc.), did not receive full development. The common people in the city-states, who had no political experience and drew their ideas about power from the patriarchal-religious past, ceded the reins of government in almost all ancient city-states to the clan, priestly and new propertied aristocracy. This is precisely what state power was like in Athens on the eve of Solon’s reforms, in the early period of the patrician republic in Rome, etc. The further process of democratization of political life in ancient city-states was accompanied by an intensification of the struggle between the aristocracy, which held power in its hands and sought to preserve the old polis orders, and the people (demos), increasingly aware of their civil unity. The result of this struggle (eupatrides and demos in Athens, patricians and plebeians in Rome, etc.) was a series of legislative reforms that undermined the monopoly of the aristocracy in government bodies and created the basis for the development of democratic institutions.
In many Greek city-states, the final establishment of a democratic system was preceded by the usurpation of power by individual tyrant rulers, usually coming from an aristocratic environment, but using their power to undermine the old aristocratic and patriarchal order, to protect the interests of broad sections of the population of the polis. Such regimes of personal power, called tyranny, were established in Miletus, Ephesus, Corinth, Athens, Megara and contributed to the strengthening of private property and the elimination of the privileges of the aristocracy, the establishment of democracy as a form of state that best reflects the general interests of the civil and political community.
By the VI-V centuries. BC. Among the several hundred ancient Greek city-states, the two largest and most militarily powerful city-states come to the fore: Athens and Sparta. The entire subsequent history of statehood in Ancient Greece unfolded under the sign of the antagonism of these two policies. In Athens, where private property, slavery, and market relations were most fully developed, where a civil community was formed that united its members, despite all the differences in their property and political interests, into a single integral whole, ancient democracy reached its peak and became, as subsequent history testifies, enormous creative power.
In contrast to Athens, Sparta went down in history as an example of an aristocratic military camp state, which, in order to suppress the huge mass of the forced population (helots), artificially restrained the development of private property and unsuccessfully tried to maintain equality among the Spartiates themselves. Thus, the rivalry between Athens and Sparta resulted in a kind of competition between two different civil and political communities in Greece. What is instructive in the history of ancient Greek statehood is that the confrontation between the two “police superpowers” drew the entire Greek world into the bloody and protracted Peloponnesian War, which resulted in the weakening of the entire polis system and the fall of democratic institutions. Ultimately, both Athens and Sparta fell prey to the Macedonian monarchy.
The reason for the death of ancient Greek statehood, in particular Athens, which became the ideal of a democratic state based on the autonomy of the private owner as a full member of the civil community, is not so much slavery as the internal weakness of the polis structure of the state itself. This device, associated with pre-given territorial and political parameters, had no room for political maneuver and for further progressive evolution.
By the 1st century. BC. The polis system in Rome also exhausted itself when it became especially obvious that the city republic could not cope with slave uprisings and was unable to ensure internal civil unity. Under these conditions, maintaining a republican system designed to govern a city-state becomes an anachronism. To replace the republic, which turned into the 1st century. BC. an empire comes to a world power. The influence of the polis system over the long history of the Roman Republic became so great that during the first centuries (principate), emperors seeking to create a centralized bureaucratic monarchy could not free themselves from republican polis institutions for a long time.
The strengthening of the power of the late Roman emperors and the adoption of Christianity brought the final line under the polis order. As for the most recent Roman Empire, it finally breaks with republican-police democracy and increasingly acquires, especially in its eastern part, the features of medieval statehood.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF OWNERSHIP RIGHTS AND PROPERTY RIGHTS BASED ON LAWS IN XII TABLES
The laws of the XII tables are the oldest monument of Roman civil law. Having created a real defense against the arbitrariness of patrician judges, they were the personification important stage in the struggle between patricians and plebeians in ancient Rome. Unfortunately, their original has not survived, and the material for the reconstruction of this ancient code, undertaken in the 19th century, was fragments cited in the works of ancient Roman and Greek authors, literally or in retelling.
The laws of the XII tables were developed by a commission of 12 (decemvirs) in the middle of the 5th century BC. e. (451 – 450). They got their name because they were inscribed on 12 wooden tablets, displayed for public viewing in the main square of Rome, its political center - the Forum.
A distinctive feature of these laws was strict formalism: the slightest omission in the form of a court agreement entailed the loss of the case. This omission was taken as the “finger of God.”
The laws of the tables regulated the sphere of family and inheritance relations, contained rules relating to loan transactions and criminal offenses, but did not concern state law at all. Starting from the IV-III centuries. BC e. the laws of the Tables began to be adjusted by a new source of law - praetor's edicts, which reflected new economic relations generated by the transition from ancient archaic forms of purchase and sale, lending and lending to more complex legal relations caused by the growth of commodity production, commodity exchange, banking operations etc.
An important feature of Roman property law was the division of things into two types - res mancipi and res nec mancipi. The first type included land (at first near Rome, and then all land in Italy in general), draft animals, slaves, buildings and structures, i.e. objects of traditional communal property. The second type included all other things, the possession of which could be individualized.
To alienate things of the first category—sale, barter, donation, etc.—required compliance with formalities called mancipation. This word comes from “manus” - hand and contains a figurative idea of the transfer of ownership when laying hands on an acquired thing. Having laid on hand, one should also say: “I affirm that this thing belongs to me by right of the Quirites...” (that is, the descendants of the deified Romulus-Quirinus). Mancipation conveyed to the acquirer the undeniable right of ownership of the thing. Payment of money without mancipation was not yet sufficient, as we see, for the emergence of property rights.
It should also be said that the transfer of the thing being mancipated took place in a solemn form, in the presence of 5 witnesses and a weight holder with scales and copper. The latter indicates that the ritual of mancipation arose before the appearance of the minted assa coin, but copper in the weight determined by the parties already appeared as a general equivalent. The formalities served to remember the transaction if someday, in the future, a dispute over property related to it arose.
All other things, even precious ones, were transferred using simple tradition, that is, without formal transfer on the terms established by the contract of sale, exchange, gift, etc.
The old slave, like the old horse, required - when passing from hand to hand - mancipation. Precious vase – traditions. The first two things belonged to the category of tools, this essay was shamelessly downloaded from the global global network and this idiot did not even bother to read it before handing it over to you and I hope you will deal with it to the fullest extent, and the means of production; by their origin, they gravitate towards the supreme collective property of the Roman community, while a vase, decoration, like any other everyday thing, were both initially and subsequently objects of individual property. And that's the whole point!
Already in ancient times, an order developed according to which the right of ownership of a thing could arise as a result of long-term possession of the thing. (VI.3: The limitation period for possession of a plot of land (was established) at two years, for all other things - at one year.).
A special type of property right, recorded in the Laws of the XII Tables, are easements, rules of law that limit the rights of owners to the property they own, as well as giving the subject a number of rights to property that does not belong to him.
In the Laws of the XII Tables, the owner was directly prescribed:
trim trees at a height of 15 feet so as not to cause damage to the neighboring property (VII. 9a);
In addition, the right of passage on someone else's land was granted: “Let (the owners of roadside areas) fence the road, if they do not pave it with stones, let him ride on a beast of burden wherever he wishes.” Owners of plots had the right, under certain circumstances, to use products brought by someone else’s property: “VII.9b. The Law of the XII Tables allowed the collection of acorns falling from a neighboring plot”, as well as filing a claim against the owner of the property causing damage “VII.10. If a tree from a neighboring plot has been blown onto your plot by the wind, you can bring a claim for its removal on the basis of the Law of the XII Tables.”
3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND, ORIGIN, CONTENT AND FEATURES OF CITY LAW IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE
The Middle Ages is an era when, within the framework of emerging national states, the foundations of future national legal systems were gradually formed.
Particular development during the period under study was
city law. With the growth and development of cities, their own city courts appeared here, which initially dealt with market disputes, but gradually covered the entire population of the city with their jurisdiction and supplanted the use of fief and court law in cities.City law was most often set out in writing, mainly in connection with its borrowing by a city. In some cities, the council decided to write down the law for the information of its own citizens, and judicial practice was also recorded. Large cities that had a high level of commodity-money relations, respectively, had a higher level of legal elaboration of legal norms. Over time, they brought other less developed cities under their influence. Thus, the North German city of Lübeck had more than 100 legally affiliated cities. And the influence of Magdeburg Law (Magdeburg) was extended to a significant part of Eastern Europe and London.
Magdeburg city law operated over a vast territory of the eastern lands, which included East Saxony, Brandenburg, and certain regions of Poland.
The most famous were the norms of Magdeburg law sent to Breslau in 1261 (64 articles) and to Görlitz in 1304 (140 articles). In the XIV century. Systematized Magdeburg-Breslau law was published in five books containing about five hundred articles. The first book was devoted to city judges, the procedure for their installation, their competence, rights and responsibilities. The second book covered issues of legal proceedings, the third dealt with various claims, the fourth was devoted to family and inheritance law, and the fifth (incomplete) dealt with various decisions not covered in other books.
City law is basically written law, its provisions were fixed by city statutes, royal or other seigneurial charters granted to the city 1. City law, despite the consolidation of some purely feudal institutions in it, was not feudal law in its basic content; it rather anticipated future bourgeois law and developed its principles. The cities made extensive use of various collections of international trade law and maritime customs compiled in the cities of Italy, Spain, etc., and thereby made a significant contribution to the formation of uniform legal traditions in the countries of Western Europe.
Urban law, which was considered as a kind of common law, was also of great importance in France during the Middle Ages. It was distinguished by significant diversity, but it also had common features. The main source of this right were city charters, which were normative in nature and reflected a compromise between the urban population and the king or individual lords. The charters and the internal regulations of cities based on them provided for the maintenance of peace and order, recognized important rights and freedoms of citizens not protected by ordinary feudal law (the right to life and property of citizens, inviolability of the home, etc.), and regulated trade and craft activities.
The gradual development of internal, and especially international trade It also revealed obvious shortcomings of city law, which was of a local particular nature. Therefore, from the 12th century. in relations between merchants, norms of international maritime and trade law began to be used, borrowed from collections of maritime customs and trading practices recorded in Italian and Spanish cities (Pisa, Barcelona, etc.). Over time, such collections began to be compiled in France. The most famous of them is the Register of Trade and Maritime Customs, compiled in the 13th century. in Oleron and used in many port cities of France and England.
Medieval law gave the city the status of a “corporation” - a collection of citizens as a single whole, with the rights of a legal entity. Collections of German city law emphasize his authoritative royal origin, for the king “gave to the merchants the right which he himself had constantly had at his court.” In this regard, the symbols of the city became a cross on the market square and a hanging royal glove, “to make it clear that the royal peace and the will of the king are in effect in this place.”
Initially based on the principles and institutions of zemstvo and fief law, especially in the field of marriage, family and inheritance relations, German urban law, in the process of strengthening the independence of German cities, was increasingly saturated with its own principles and norms. Special attention began to focus on the regulation of fairs and auctions, issues of property disposal and debt collection. In German cities, fair and bill charters were adopted quite early, and purchase and sale agreements, including on credit, pledge and loan agreements, orders and commissions, received detailed regulation. In commercial law, which gradually emerged from city law, the institutions of promissory notes and commercial partnerships received their further development.
At the disposal of property purchased with his own funds, the townsman was completely free; he could freely bequeath property worth more than three shillings, subject to one condition - “being in good health.”
German medieval law, including city law, was particularly harsh in relation to debtors. If the defendant could not repay the debt through the court and pay a fine to the judge, confiscation of property or arrest followed until there was someone willing to pay the debt for the defendant. In addition, the creditor could use his own methods of influence, for example, keeping the debtor in shackles on meager food; At the same time, it was stipulated that the debtor “must not be tormented.” German city law also contained another original principle that distinguished it on the issue of debt obligations from feudal and canon law: the son was exempt from paying the debt of his deceased father if he was “not informed of this debt, as required by law.”
Urban criminal law, protecting the “urban peace,” established a fairly simple list of punishments, without qualified and painful varieties. For murder or fatal wounding, rape, or attack on a house, the perpetrator was punished by cutting off the head, for other injuries - by cutting off the hand. Ordinary theft without aggravating circumstances, as well as violation of trade rules, were punished with a dishonorable punishment (shearing and scourging). In addition, offenses in the field of trade were accompanied by deprivation of the right to engage in trading activities without special permission from the Ratmans. For other crimes typical of city life - capture movable property, violation of possession, insult to the chef, violation of the guarantee - a fine was imposed. And only a particularly “dishonorable” attack on someone else’s property - night theft, theft from a sleeping person when the thief was caught red-handed, could be punished by hanging and destruction of the criminal’s house.
In German city law, the development of issues of organization of legal proceedings, evidence and rules of procedure was particularly thorough.
The city court was headed by the burgrave, appointed by the lord of the city, and his deputy (schultgeis), who judged by order, the king or prince. The burggraf personally had to consider cases three times a year, and in his absence this was done by the schultgeis. In addition, the Burgrave's jurisdiction included all cases of violence, stalking, home assault if the perpetrator was caught in the act, as well as all cases that arose "14 nights" before the Burgrave's official court cases. In addition to the appointed judicial officials, two categories of judges were elected - city sheffens (for life) and ratmans - advisers (for one year). Ratmans were mainly convened “on the advice of the wisest” to examine cases of violation of city trade rules. The bulk of cases were thus considered by the college of city sheffens, which had general jurisdiction over citizens and foreigners. At the same time, the exclusive jurisdiction of townspeople to the city court was emphasized - they could not go to court outside the city.
For disrupting a court hearing or failure to appear in court, judges of any level, from Ratmans to Schultsheis, were subject to a fine, as were the parties involved in the case. Only three legal reasons were established for failure to appear in the city court: illness, captivity, and service to the state outside the country.
City procedural law placed special emphasis on guaranteeing the rights of the accused: short-term proceedings, objectivity of evidence, and prevention of lynching. The defendant or accused had the right to a speedy trial: a burgrave or a schultgeis, if the board of sheffens or ratmans was not sitting, a sheffen, if there was no burgrave or a schultgeis, or any judge elected by the townspeople in place of the judge, if there were no other judges. The case between a citizen and a foreigner was to be considered without delay, with a decision rendered on the same day.
The guilt of the person caught in the act or the innocence of the one who declared himself to be such must nevertheless be proven by unanimous confirmation of the fact “he is the seventh” (i.e., with the help of six witnesses).
In addition to witnesses, in many cases other evidence of a crime was required. If such evidence existed, it could not be refuted by oath. If there were none, city law considered it necessary to acquit the accused even in the presence of witnesses. In addition, lynching was prohibited even when the criminal was caught on the spot, and more lenient rules of evidence were introduced for women. If the woman was not caught in the act, she could be exonerated by an oath of innocence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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In the V-IV centuries. BC e. Greek culture became one of the most developed systems of the ancient world. Three important features give it an exceptional character: completeness, variety and a certain completeness. components culture (literature, art, philosophy); its humanistic orientation; the great contribution of the Greeks to the treasury of world culture, the creation of masterpieces that enriched the cultural creativity of subsequent generations and firmly entered the life of the peoples of the Mediterranean and Europe. Several conditions for such an unprecedented rise can be pointed out.
The culture of the Greeks was primarily created on the basis of a more dynamic method of production, a rationally organized economy. The Greek economy with commodity production, built on the principles of private property, ensured the receipt of surplus product through more organized and efficient exploitation of workers, and created sufficient material opportunities for cultural creativity.
The ruling class, consisting of owners of relatively small estates, workshops, and ships, had to take an active part in organizing production and was interested in general cultural progress. Social basis The polis organization consisted of average citizenship, primarily wealthy landowners, who at the same time were full citizens and warriors. This socially and politically active category of citizenship was more ready to perceive cultural values than, for example, disenfranchised community members in the countries of the Ancient East.
The process of cultural creativity in different cities of Greece had its own degree of intensity, and was more fruitful in states with a democratic structure. The absence of a closed layer of ruling, bureaucracy and mercenary army separated from the bulk of citizenship, concentration of power in the hands of the People's Assembly, annually replaced and controlled administrative apparatus, militia as the basis military organization generated closeness to state institutions and the bulk of citizenship, assumed the active participation of citizens in government affairs, and the education of a cultural and politically minded individual.
Constant participation in debates, discussion of bills and decisions in the People's Assembly shaped the political thinking of the citizen, on the one hand, and on the other, contributed to the flourishing of oratory. It is no coincidence that it was in Greece in the V-IV centuries. BC e. famous speakers appear: Pericles, Cleon, Isocrates, the famous Demosthenes.
The development of Greek culture was facilitated by the absence in the country of a powerful priestly organization, such as, for example, in the countries of the Ancient East, where the process of cultural creativity was taken under control. The nature of the Greek religion, the simplicity of religious rites, and the conduct of the main religious ceremonies by elected magistrates excluded the possibility of the formation of an extensive and influential priestly corporation. This predetermined the freer nature of education, the education system, worldview and the entire culture.
Another important factor acted in the same direction: the fairly widespread spread of literacy, that is, the ability to write and read; the Greeks had access to wonderful works by historians, philosophers, playwrights, and writers. Widespread literacy is characteristic of democratic states, which require the political activity of ordinary citizens, their participation in elections, voting, drawing up decisions, and becoming familiar with documents of national importance. It was the opportunity to read and competently judge what was read that was an important stimulus for the creativity of Greek thinkers.
One of the indispensable conditions for the formation of Greek culture is the features of its natural environment. Generally natural conditions turned out to be quite favorable at that stage of historical life for the flourishing of Greek culture. And the point is not that Greek nature is very generous to man and easily provides him with all the benefits, but that it encouraged people to work, demanded from them diligence as necessary condition existence.
The hilly terrain, the land of average fertility, overgrown with tenacious bushes, in the classical period of Greek history began to bring generous harvests of grapes, olives, fruits, vegetables, and in a number of areas - grains because the Greeks had to clear the cultivated areas from trees and bushes, loosen and fertilize rocky soil, introduce new agricultural techniques, and develop new varieties.
The territory of Balkan Greece has many mineral resources: iron and copper ore, high-quality clay, building limestone and marble, silver and gold. However, they lie deep in the ground and, in order to extract them and use them in production, it was necessary to cut deep mines, build branched drifts from them, and all this required knowledge, ingenuity, hard work, and faith in the creative powers of man.
It is impossible to imagine Greek nature without the sea. The sea played a huge role in the lives of both individuals and almost all Greek city states. The coastline of the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula is indented by numerous bays, bays, and harbors. The Aegean Sea is dotted with hundreds of large and small islands. At sea, the Greeks caught fish and shellfish for food, and along sea routes they established connections between different cities, even distant ones, with coastal local tribes.
The sea protected from the enemy, and the sea brought peoples together; maritime connections not only ensured the receipt of food and raw materials, but also contributed to mutual enrichment and the exchange of cultural achievements. The Greeks took possession of the sea, it became part of their life, way of life, and culture. But in order to master the capricious and powerful elements, it was necessary to show courage, have special knowledge, adapt to the vagaries of sea currents and winds, develop navigation techniques, new types of ships were needed that could set off on long voyages.
The deep aestheticism of Greek culture was largely generated by the beauty of the surrounding nature. In Balkan Greece, this small country with low mountains dividing the territory into many small valleys, covered with green forests descending from the mountains, and an endless sea, you can see a balanced combination of different types of landscape and various natural colors of mountain peaks, green valleys, blue sea, blue sky
For worldview ancient Greek classical time, the entire Greek culture is characterized by a subtle sense of nature, the proportionality and natural harmony inherent in it, which was realized in different ways in music, philosophy, architecture, sculpture, and literature.
In the illustration - Temple of Apollo at Delphi: “Know yourself”
cards:
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PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL IDEAS OF THE CLASSICAL PERIOD OF ANCIENT GREECE AND THEIR RELEVANCE FOR MODERN EDUCATION
With thanks,
to my supervisor
Fateeva N.I. I dedicate...
INTRODUCTION
Chapter I. Cultural and historical features of Ancient Greek civilization
1.1. The significance of cultural and historical factors for the history of pedagogy
1.2 Features of culture and science of Ancient Greece
Chapter II. Psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece in the theory and practice of education
2.3. Ideas about the ideal person and psychological and pedagogical views of the leading philosophers of Ancient Greece on raising children
Chapter III. The relevance of psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece for modern education
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPLICATION
INTRODUCTION
The importance of the history of education cannot be overestimated. History itself is valuable in itself, and for such a science as pedagogy its value is paramount. The upbringing of the younger generation has always been not only a necessity, but also a condition for the further development of human society. How did this education itself develop? This is an extremely complex and multifaceted process; it is primarily influenced by the historical era and culture of the people where this education takes place. This is especially true for the civilizations of the Ancient World, which are strikingly different from modern ones. We are practically unable to reliably restore and consider all the features of this process in the Ancient World. Be that as it may, it is there, deep into the millennia, that the very essence of education goes, its appearance and development originates there.
Ancient Greece is one of the first civilizations, its heritage is enormous, as evidenced by the monuments of ancient Greek philosophical thought, in which not the least place was given to human education. Ancient Greek society developed enough to pay due attention to the education of the younger generation. This process was significantly influenced by the very essence and culture of Ancient Greek civilization. The upbringing of a person in the civilization of Ancient Greece is the upbringing of children that has historically developed in the process of transferring cultural experience from generation to generation, which in the process of the formation of civilization and the development of culture acquired an organized form containing elements of training, education and systematicity. Subsequently, this education was organized and controlled by the state, and was aimed at one’s own well-being and development. These features of education are to some extent exceptional, specific, inherent only to the civilization of Ancient Greece.
In addition to this exclusivity, it is also worth mentioning the relevance of the ideas and ideals of ancient Greek education. Some psychological and pedagogical ideas that arose in that era became the basis of the heritage of ancient Greek education. This heritage, in turn, became the basis for the formation of a universal model of European education, in which these ideas developed over the centuries and became the basis of modern pedagogy.
From a scientific point of view, scientists have been interested in the formation of pedagogy in the Ancient World, in particular in Ancient Greece, since the Enlightenment; the first such work can be considered the book by K.E. Mangelsdorf “An Experience in Presenting What has been Said and Done for Thousands of Years in the Field of Education” (1779). An important study that touches on the issue discussed in this work is the two-volume work by F. Kramer “The History of Education and Training in Antiquity” (1832–38). For the level of development of scientific thought in the 19th century. great thoroughness and big amount factual material is contained in the four-volume work of the German educator K. Schmidt “The History of Pedagogy, Set forth in World-Historical Development and in Organic Connection with the Cultural Life of Nations” (“Geschichte der P;dagogik dargestellt in weltgeschichtlicher Entwickelung und im organischen Zusammenhang mit dem Kulturleben” (1860 –62); Russian translation 1877–81). In this voluminous work, significant place is devoted to the pedagogical experience of Antiquity.
In Russia, L. N. Modzalevsky dealt with the history of pedagogy in the ancient world, basing his scientific research on the works of German scientists. In the two-volume book “Essay on the history of education and training from ancient times to the present day,” published in the sixties of the 19th century, he defines the science of the history of pedagogy and reveals its goals and objectives. He notes the importance of Ancient education for the development of pedagogy.
Since the late thirties of the XX century. In Russia, editions of selected works by Russian and foreign teachers began to be published, devoted to various aspects of the history of pedagogy; the four-volume “Anthology on the History of Pedagogy” (1935–40) was published, where in the first volume significant attention was paid to Antiquity.
Until now, the most complete and relevant work is “Essays on the history of ancient pedagogy” by G. E. Zhurakovsky (1940). In it, the author, using the most modern historical data at that time, most fully and in detail examines all the pedagogical aspects of the era of Antiquity.
In the works of modern scientists involved in the history of pedagogy, issues of the formation pedagogical theory and practices in Ancient Greece concerned A.I. Piskunov “History of Pedagogy” (1998), B.M. Bim-Bad, A.N. Dzhurinsky “History of Pedagogy” (1998), M.A. Mazalov and T.V. Urakov “History of Pedagogy and Education” and others.
Problem: what psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece are relevant for modern education?
Goal: to identify psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece that are relevant for modern education.
Object of study: psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece.
Subject of research: psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece that are relevant for modern education.
Research hypothesis: in our research we proceed from the assumption that the most relevant for modern education, in our opinion, are the following ideas:
Tasks:
- Study the cultural and historical aspect of education in Ancient Greece;
- Reveal the sociocultural attitude towards children and childhood in Ancient Greece;
- Study the current education systems (Athens and Sparta);
- Study the ideas about the ideal person and the psychological and pedagogical views on raising children of the leading philosophers of Ancient Greece;
- To identify the relevance of psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece for modern education.
Research methods:
- Study of historical, philosophical, cultural and psychological-pedagogical literature;
- Theoretical analysis;
- Comparative analysis;
- Questionnaire;
- Comparison, comparison, synthesis of sources, ideas and facts in accordance with the purpose and objectives of the study.
The research materials included:
Works of various authors dedicated to the history and culture of Ancient Greece;
- works of the most significant philosophers of Ancient Greece;
- the outstanding work of G. E. Zhurakovsky “Essays on the history of ancient pedagogy” (1940);
- results of a survey of teachers from the state budgetary educational institution Moscow cities kindergarten No. 524 and a survey of teachers of the state budgetary educational institution of secondary educational school No. 1194 in Moscow and a survey of teachers and students Faculty of Education State educational institution of higher professional education in Moscow, Moscow City Pedagogical University.
The sources of the study were also the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the Federal Law on Education in the Russian Federation of December 29, 2012, N 273-FZ.
Chapter I.
Cultural and historical features of Ancient Greek civilization
1.1. The significance of historical and cultural factors for the history of pedagogy
The history of pedagogy is a section of pedagogical science that studies the formation at different stages of the development of human society of the theory and practice of educating the younger generation in their unity, as well as in connection with modern topical problems of pedagogical science. An essential feature of the history of education, in our opinion, is the qualitative differences in the development of the culture of civilizations and humanity as a whole, and in specific historical eras. That is, at every historical stage in the development of human culture, certain forms of organization of life and activity of people, in their material and spiritual values, dominate. The level of development of culture, and the specific features of culture themselves (such as mores and customs, language and writing, economics, socio-political structure, science, technology, art, religion, etc.) most directly influence the upbringing of children in a particular historical era. This determines the formulation of the form, goals and objectives of education in each specific historical era.
First of all, it should be noted that history is not just the past of human society, but the process of its development. The study of history is the link between the past and the present, that is, history reveals the essence of modernity. Accordingly, for a correct understanding of the essential foundations of modern pedagogy, it is necessary to know and understand the entire historical process of the development of pedagogical thought from the very beginning of humanity until the present day.
But in order for this knowledge and understanding to become possible, one must also remember about the culture of mankind, which developed along with the historical development of society or even, in some sense, itself was the source of this development. Culture represents programs of activity, behavior and communication, that is, norms, knowledge, skills, religion, social goals and value orientations. In the life of society, they ensure the reproduction of the diversity of forms of social life, types of activities characteristic of a certain type of society, its inherent objective environment, its social connections and types of personalities - everything that makes up the real fabric of social life at a certain stage of its historical development. For the history of education, this is of no small importance; it is important to understand what the structure of a particular society was, what position children occupied in it, how they treated their upbringing, and how this attitude influenced the development of pedagogical theory and practice.
Accordingly, we can distinguish two most significant factors that influence the history of education: historical (provides factual material, such as the chronological framework of the era, main events, etc.) and cultural (provides material that reveals specific social features historical era in question).
The synthesis of these two factors in the history of education makes it possible to reveal and study in full the features of education in each specific historical era and in the entire process of development of human society. The historical and cultural aspects in the history of education are closely interconnected. Each specific historical era, civilization, people has its own history, culture, and therefore its own worldview, programs of activity, behavior and communication of people, which, in turn, most directly influence attitudes towards children and their upbringing. That is, one is impossible without the other; when talking about the history of education, we will always consider culture, and vice versa - when talking about how society and culture influenced the formation of pedagogical thought, we will talk about a specific historical era.
In order to reveal the psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece, we must first of all show how people saw the world in that distant era, how they lived and how social organization was structured, we must also show how the ancient Greeks saw the ideal of man, and how he had to be raised. Thanks to these factors, we will be able to give a detailed and well-founded description of the existing system of human upbringing, and then, based on these factors, we will reveal the essential features of this system and highlight the main psychological and pedagogical ideas, and try to show the relevance of the most significant and fundamental of them for modern times.
Brief cultural and historical overview of the civilization of Ancient Greece
Before moving on to a consideration of the educational system in Ancient Greece, it is necessary to outline the time frame of the existence of civilization and describe the key features of culture, religion and philosophy that had a direct impact on the formation and development of pedagogical thought.
Ancient Greece (Hellas; other Greek ;;;;;; ;;;;;;) – common name the territories of the ancient Greek states in the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea, the coast of Thrace, along the western coastline of the Asian mainland.
Periodization of the history of Ancient Greece [compiled on the basis of 21, 11–73; 26, 5-6; 16; 34, 3897–3976; 46, 16558–16679]:
1. Crete-Mycenaean period (end of the 3rd–2nd millennium BC). Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. Formation of the first states. Development of navigation. Establishing trade and diplomatic contacts with the civilizations of the Ancient East.
2. Polis period (XI–IV centuries BC). The formation, flourishing and crisis of polis structures with democratic and oligarchic forms of statehood. Higher cultural and scientific achievements ancient Greek civilization.
1. Prepolis period, “dark ages” (XI–IX centuries BC). The dominance of tribal relations, their transformation into early class ones.
2. Archaic Greece (VIII–VI centuries BC). Formation of policy structures. Great Greek Colonization. Early Greek tyrannies.
3. Classical Greece (V–IV centuries BC). The flourishing of the economy and culture of Greek city-states. The power in the policies was either democratic (for example, in Athens) or oligarchic (Sparta, Crete). Reflecting the aggression of the Persian world power, the rise of national consciousness (500–449 BC). Increasing conflict between trade and craft types of policies with democratic forms government system and backward agrarian city states with an aristocratic structure, the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), which undermined the economic and political potential of Hellas. The beginning of the crisis of the polis system and the loss of independence as a result of Macedonian aggression.
3. Hellenistic period (IV–I centuries BC). The brief reign of world power Alexander the Great. The origin, flourishing and collapse of Hellenistic Greek-Eastern culture and statehood.
The rapid growth of Greek culture during the 8th–6th centuries. BC e. explained by the Great Greek Colonization, thanks to which the previously isolated Greek world emerged from the cultural and political isolation in which it found itself after the collapse of the Mycenaean culture. The Greeks learned a lot from their eastern neighbors. From the Phoenicians they borrowed and reworked the alphabetic letter, also the secret of making glass, in the country of the pharaohs they learned monumental architecture and sculpture, as well as astronomy and geometry, and from the Libyans they adopted an extremely important invention - monetary coinage. All these elements of foreign cultures were creatively rethought and changed, processed and adapted to the urgent needs of life and entered Greek culture as organic components.
With all these “borrowings,” the Greeks never blindly copied the achievements of other peoples, but tried to adapt someone else’s in such a way that it would become their own, and, moreover, meet national needs and tastes; they sought to make what they borrowed the property of their culture. This exceptional ability for critical selection, processing and rethinking of other people's experience brought Greek culture to a new stage of development, freeing it from the threat of becoming a copy of the Egyptian, Babylonian or any other more ancient and developed civilization. By borrowing and processing everything that was at least somewhat interesting and necessary, the Greeks not only preserved the uniqueness and originality of their culture, but also multiplied and developed it.
Greek civilization and culture was, so to speak, universal. For the first time in the entire Ancient world, conditions were created for the free, practically unrestricted, all-round development of man, the comprehensive disclosure of his physical and spiritual capabilities. Here the very possibility of “isolating” a person’s personality from the general mass appeared.
Throughout the Ancient World, Greek civilization became the first and only civilization that itself focused on man, on his self-valued and self-sufficient personality, which was actually placed at the center of the universe. In this case, we can talk about Greek humanism and anthropocentrism. But at the same time, we should remember about bloody and devastating wars, and about the exploitation of the same person in the form of slavery. But at the same time, a free citizen of the ancient Greek polis realized himself as a free and unique person, his level of freedom and self-awareness was higher than that of other peoples of the Ancient World.
The Greeks tried to look at the world around them directly and soberly, assessing it rationally, using common sense and the rudiments of logic, despite their extremely developed religious and political imagination, characterized by wealth, strength and freshness. This is evidenced by numerous monuments of Greek literature: mythology and works of art based on its subjects. But all this wealth did not interfere with their lives at all, did not drive them into narrow religious-dogmatic frameworks. They established a clear boundary separating everyday everyday life from religious and mystical life.
These above-mentioned features and peculiarities of ancient Greek civilization strongly bring it closer to European civilization right up to the New Time, which, in fact, became the heir to Ancient Greek civilization itself.
We will be primarily interested in the Classical period of the history of Ancient Greece (V-IV centuries BC). As mentioned above, this is the heyday of ancient Greek culture; a great many historical and cultural monuments have been preserved from this period, and by their diversity we can judge the degree of development of the country and culture, both in general and in individual aspects. First of all, we should consider the achievements of culture, art and philosophy, and then consider the very system of education and pedagogical thought in Ancient Greece.
Now a few words should be said about ancient Greek religion. It was polytheistic, did not have a single church and dogma, but consisted of cults of various deities. They, according to the Greeks, were not omnipotent, but patronized one or more elements, spheres of human activity or geographical areas.
Places of worship of the gods were altars and temples in which statues of deities were located. Animal sacrifices were common, and food, drinks and things were also donated to the deities. Large temples had oracles (Delphi).
In Greece there was no independent priestly class. The priests were elected government officials, their duties included serving the cult of the deities, so that the gods would not become angry and turn away from the people and the state. The main thing was not faith, but correct service and sacrifices to the gods.
In general, the main feature of the ancient Greek religion was the absence of any dogma. No one watched how people thought about the gods, how they were represented, the only thing that mattered was whether these people worshiped the gods correctly.
According to the researcher of ancient Greek religion F.F. Zelinsky, the Greeks had not one, but three religions. The first is mythology, which poetically revealed the world of the gods. The second is a philosophical religion; each philosophical movement and school had its own ideas about the divine world (more on this below). The third - the only one obligatory for a citizen as such - is civil religion, this is the obligation to participate in religious events. Everyone, using his right to choose, was free to believe what he was inclined to believe or not to believe. Thus, we can conclude that the ancient Greek religion, unlike its eastern counterparts (for example, the ancient Egyptian), was free in nature, and its influence on social life was less than in other civilizations of the Ancient World.
1.2. Features of culture and science of Ancient Greece
Social structure of ancient Greek society
Economic relations that developed in Ancient Greece in the 5th–4th centuries. BC e., determined the nature of the social structure of ancient Greek society. Economic system could not exist without the labor of a large number of slaves who worked on private production farms. We can say that a classic slave society developed in Ancient Greece.
Accordingly, this society was divided into three main classes: the slave class, the class of small free producers and the ruling class.
We will begin by considering the ruling class; it differed significantly in its structure from the ruling classes of ancient Eastern cultures. In Greek city-states with a republican system there was no court nobility, state bureaucracy, a military class separated from society, or a powerful priesthood. The ruling class in the policies consisted of private owners of land holdings, large workshops, merchant ships, money and owners of slaves.
The ruling class was divided into two subclasses. The first is representatives of the ancient landed aristocracy, preserving family traditions. They received their main income from land ownership and in political life acted as supporters of oligarchic orders and opposed the democratic aspirations of the bulk of the citizenry. However, this numerically small stratum had high social prestige and political authority. Its representatives, who received a good upbringing and education and had the means, played a prominent role in public and political life.
Representatives of the second subclass are owners of craft workshops, large sums of money, houses, slaves, etc. They were interested in quick economic development society, dissemination of cultural achievements, conducting active foreign policy, implementation of democratic institutions. Her political program was the moderate democracy of the polis.
The second layer were free small entrepreneurs. Unlike the ruling elite, they did not have voting rights and therefore had virtually no influence on the political life of the policies. Small producers worked for land plots, in craft workshops, mines or construction, where, as a rule, slave labor was not used.
The third and most numerous layer were slaves. Although it should be noted right away that in Ancient Greece they were not considered people. Slaves were seen more as a thing. Slaves were people of non-Greek origin, whom the Greeks called barbarians (these were Thracians, Scythians, Libyans, Syrians, etc.). Slaves included prisoners of war and people bought at slave markets in non-Greek camps, as well as children of slaves (including those from the master).
Slaves were used in the household, and many artisans were slaves. A significant part of the slaves were concentrated in the city. The slave was the property of the master, the latter owned his work time, his life. The master had to take care of his slaves, as well as his livestock, as well as his working tools. These relationships were based not on some abstract principles of humanism, but on direct interest: after all, a fed and healthy worker brought big profit to his owner than a hungry and sick person.
Aristotle wrote on this issue as follows: “Nature has arranged it in such a way that the physical organization of free people is different from the physical organization of slaves: the latter have a powerful body, suitable for performing the necessary physical work, while free people stand upright and are not capable of performing this kind of work: but they are suitable for political life... Some people are free by nature, others are slaves, and it is both useful and fair for the latter to be slaves.”
Language and writing
To begin with, you should turn to the ancient Greek language (ancient Greek; ;;;;;;;; ;;;;;;). It is a language of the Indo-European family, the ancestor of the Greek language, widespread in the territory of Greek cultural influence in the era from the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. until the 5th century AD.
The ancient Greeks used the Greek alphabet, which is believed to have evolved from the Phoenician script, which in turn was probably derived from the late Egyptian (hieratic) script.
The Phoenician alphabet was a consonantal letter, in other words, it consisted only of consonants. This arrangement of the alphabet is less suitable for Greek than for the Semitic languages, so several Phoenician consonants, representing sounds not represented in Greek, were adapted to represent vowels. Thus, the Greek alphabet can be considered as the world's first consonantal-vocalic alphabet.
In its classical form, the Greek alphabet, consisting of 24 letters, was formed by the end of the 5th century. BC e. In the oldest inscriptions, the direction of writing was from right to left, then for some time a writing method called boustrophedon (literally “turning of the bull”) was used - the direction of writing alternated from line to line. In the 4th century. BC e. The modern direction was finally established - from left to right.
The Greek alphabet served as the basis from which many alphabets developed, widespread in Europe and the Middle East, and used in the writing systems of most countries around the world, including the Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet.
Number system and mathematics
Mathematics as a science was born in Ancient Greece. In contemporary countries of Hellas, mathematics was used either for everyday needs, or, conversely, for magical rituals, which had the goal of finding out the will of the gods (astrology, numerology, etc.). The Greeks approached the matter from a different angle: they put forward the thesis “Numbers rule the world.”
The Greeks tested the validity of this thesis in those areas where they were able: astronomy, optics, music, geometry, and later mechanics. Impressive successes were noted everywhere: the mathematical model had undeniable predictive power. At the same time, the Greeks created the methodology of mathematics and completed its transformation from a set of semi-heuristic algorithms into an integral system of knowledge. The basis of this system was for the first time the deductive method, which shows how to derive new ones from known truths, and the logic of the inference guarantees the truth of the new results. Deductive method also allows you to identify non-obvious connections between concepts, scientific facts and areas of mathematics.
Until the 6th century BC. e. Greek mathematics did not stand out in any way. As usual, counting and measurement were mastered. The Greek notation for numbers was additive, that is, the numerical values of the digits were added. Its first version (Attic) contained letter symbols for 1, 5, 10, 50, 100 and 1000. The counting board (abacus) with pebbles was constructed accordingly. The term calculation (calculation) comes from calculus - pebble. A special holey pebble meant zero.
This number system was non-positional and used Greek letters as numbers, with the numbers being the first letters of the words that denoted the corresponding numbers.
Later (starting from the 5th century BC), instead of Attic numbering, Ionian (Modern Greek) was adopted; it was also alphabetic and non-positional - the first 9 letters of the Greek alphabet denoted numbers from 1 to 9, the next 9 letters - tens, the rest - hundreds . In order not to confuse numbers and letters, a line was drawn above the numbers.
In the 6th century BC. e. The “Greek miracle” begins: two scientific schools appear at once - the Ionians (Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Anaximander) and the Pythagoreans. They, in turn, received their initial knowledge from the Babylonian and Egyptian sages.
In the 5th century BC. e. Such outstanding thinkers as Hippocrates of Chios, Hippias of Elis and others dealt with mathematical problems. In the 4th century BC. e. The Platonic Academy becomes the center for the study of mathematical sciences, where mathematicians such as Theaetetus of Athens, Archytas of Tarentum, Eudoxus of Cnidus, and the brothers Menaechmus and Dinostratus work.
In the 3rd century. BC e. The Alexandria Museyon (House of Muses) becomes the scientific center. It was led for a long time by the mathematician Eratosthenes of Cyrene, and Apollonius of Perga and Euclid, the author of the Elements, also worked there. The Thirteen Books of the Elements are the basis of ancient mathematics, the result of its 300-year development and the basis for further research. The influence and authority of this book were enormous for two thousand years.
At the same time, Archimedes lived and worked in Syracuse.
Greek mathematics amazes primarily with its beauty and richness of content. Many modern scientists noted that they took the motives for their discoveries from the ancients. Two achievements of Greek mathematics far outlived their creators.
First, the Greeks built mathematics as an integral science with its own methodology, based on clearly formulated laws of logic.
Second, they proclaimed that the laws of nature are comprehensible to the human mind, and mathematical models are the key to understanding them.
In these two respects, ancient mathematics is completely modern.
Literature and theater
It should be said about two more extremely significant aspects of ancient Greek culture, which have an important impact on public life.
The main genres of modern literature originated and were formed by the ancient Greeks: epic, lyric poetry, novel, story, tragedy and comedy, poem and ode, satire, fable and epigram, oratorical, historical and philosophical prose.
The extreme limits of the history of ancient Greek literature should be recognized as the 11th century. BC e., when numerous legends about the heroes of the Trojan War arose, and the first half of the 6th century. n. e., when, by order of the Byzantine emperor Justinian (529), philosophical schools in Athens were closed.
Of the huge variety of works of ancient Greek literature, only very few have reached us; many writers and their works are known to us only by name; There is not a single ancient Greek writer from whom all of his literary heritage has come to us.
Ancient Greek literature grew out of folklore, and mythology was not only its arsenal, but also its soil. The beginning of Greek literature is considered to be the poems “Iliad” and “Odessey” (8th century BC) attributed to Homer.
Change of artistic guidelines in the 7th–6th centuries. BC. leads to the flourishing of lyric poetry, the emergence of a large group of bright masters of verse from Archilochus to Anacreon and Sappho.
The heyday of Athenian statehood in the 5th–4th centuries. BC. and especially the “age of Pericles,” when Athens became the “eye of Hellas,” the classical period of Greek literature. The creation of great architectural monuments, especially the masterpieces of the Acropolis, coincides with the rise of drama in the 5th century. BC. This is the most brilliant achievement of literature of the classical period. It is difficult to overestimate the role of theater in the life of the Hellenes; large-scale moral and ethical problems, embodied on stage, had a living impact on the state of mind of the audience and influenced the spiritual climate of civil society.
Three great tragedians - Aeschylus (525 - 456 BC), Sophocles (496 - 406 BC) and Euripides (480 - 406 BC) - captured with great clarity stages in the evolution of Greek tragedy, the development of its problematics, its form and structure. If the heroes of Aeschylus - Prometheus, Clytemnestra, Agamemnon - large-scale, monumental - acted under the influence of higher powers, guided by the gods, then Sophocles already created sublime heroic characters of people, “as they should be” (Oedipus, Antigone, Electra). Euripides, this “philosopher of the stage,” brought the heroes even closer to reality, to the psychology of everyday reality, presenting them as people “as they are” (Jason, Medea, Phaedra, Iphigenia).
“The Father of Comedy” Aristophanes (455 – 385 BC), a “signature” figure for a free democratic society, laid the foundations for dramaturgy, politically “engaged”, socially active, full of satirical pathos.
The classical period meant, especially in the 4th century. BC, the formation of prose genres, which also revealed artistically perfect examples, be it historiography (Herodotus, Thucydides), oratory (Demosthenes), philosophical dialogue (Plato), aesthetic works (Aristotle).
A significant stage - the Hellenistic - was marked by a sharply changed ideological and artistic atmosphere. The most impressive literary phenomena were neo-Attic comedy (Menander) and Alexandrian poetry (Theocritus, Callimachus, Apollonius of Rhodes). The decline of Greek literature is also colorful in its own way. Plutarch made a great contribution to the biographical genre, and the early forms of the novel (Long, Heliodorus) are interesting.
Philosophy is the science of sciences
The central and most significant phenomenon in ancient Greek culture is philosophy, which, in turn, emerged from the religious and mystical teachings of the countries of the East (Egypt, Mesopotamia, India).
In accordance with the accepted periodization, the history of ancient philosophy is divided into three periods:
Archaic period (until the 6th century BC);
Classical ancient philosophy (V–IV centuries BC);
Philosophy of Hellenism (late IV-VI centuries AD).
The ancient authors themselves, who wondered about the historical beginning of philosophy, pointed to the figures of the seven sages as its ancestors. One of them, Thales of Miletus, has been considered the first philosopher of Greece since the time of Aristotle. He is a representative of the Milesian school, to which Anaximander, Anaximenes and others also belonged.
It is followed by the school of the Eleatics, who were engaged in the philosophy of existence (c. 580-430 BC). Xenophanes, Parmenides, and Zeno of Elea belonged to it. Simultaneously with this school, there was the Pythagorean school, which was engaged in the study of harmony, measure, and number.
The great loners are Heraclitus, Democritus and Anaxagoras.
Thanks to the three most prominent representatives of Greek philosophy - Socrates, Plato and Aristotle - Athens became the center of Greek philosophy for about a millennium. For the first time in history, Socrates raises the question of personality with its decisions dictated by conscience and its values. Plato creates philosophy as a complete worldview, political and logical-ethical system; Aristotle – science as a research and theoretical study of the real world.
Plato's supporters are grouped into a school known as the Academy (IV century BC - VI AD).
Supporters of Aristotle for the most part famous scientists who dealt with specific sciences were called peripatetics.
In parallel with philosophy, or thanks to it, other sciences developed. As already mentioned, during the period of Classical Greece certain advances were made in mathematics, as well as in astronomy and geography. Of particular note is medicine. Initially, the cult of the god of healing Asclepius played a large role in its development. Its temples and sanctuaries became the first hospitals, and the priests of these sanctuaries became the first doctors who combined magical techniques with rational therapeutic surgical treatment. But medicine owes its actual transformation into a science to the great physician Hippocrates (460 - 370 BC), who lived and worked on the island of Kos, in the hereditary corporation of the priests of Asclepius. He was the first to introduce a general classification of diseases, studied the causes and symptoms of various diseases, and introduced diets.
Ancient Greek philosophy was not limited only to the knowledge of existence, thanks to its globality and comprehensiveness, it affected almost all spheres of human life, and thanks to its universal methods, as we could see above, individual sciences began to develop, using the same rational methods as philosophy, but limiting oneself as a certain sphere of knowledge or sphere of human life. Ancient Greek philosophy itself paid great attention to the problems of human essence, the meaning of people's lives and individual personality differences with general similarity. In many authors we see not only various moral and ethical instructions and teachings, but entire systems in which a person is harmoniously included, we see his ideal image, which can and should be raised.
But this will be discussed in the second chapter; here we showed the cultural and historical factors that most directly influenced the life and way of life of people in Ancient Greece.
Thus, from all of the above we can conclude that the ancient Greeks traveled a long way: from religious and mythological thinking, which was burdened with many primitive superstitions and prejudices, to philosophy and science in their endless variety of schools and directions; from purely folklore forms mythology and heroic epic to real literature, represented by such genres as epic, lyrical and dramatic poetry, historiography, philosophical dialogue, novel, etc.; from primitive ornamental paintings of geometric style vases and equally primitive bronze and terracotta figurines to the still unsurpassed plastic perfection of classical and Hellenistic sculpture and painting.
Conclusions on Chapter I
Analysis of the historical and cultural literature we studied allowed us, based on the factors we identified, to identify the historical and cultural features of Ancient Greek civilization that are significant for our research:
1. Ancient Greek society took shape in the process of its historical and cultural development. Thanks to the borrowed multi-component and multi-model culture of Ancient Greece, a solid foundation arose for the formation and development of society and culture at a new qualitative level.
2. Thanks to these prerequisites, a special type of social structure of ancient Greek society emerged, called classical slave society, the ruling class of which had significant differences from the ruling classes of Eastern civilizations. These features provide a special range of opportunities for representatives of this class in the social life of society.
3. A new qualitative level of development of language, sciences and arts, especially the emergence of philosophy, provided conditions for the free, practically unlimited, all-round development of man, the comprehensive disclosure of his physical and spiritual capabilities. The very possibility of “singling out” a person’s personality from the general mass has appeared.
Greek civilization became the first and only civilization that itself focused on man, on his self-valued and self-sufficient personality, which was actually placed at the center of the universe. In this case, we can talk about Greek humanism and anthropocentrism.
Chapter II.
Psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece in the theory and practice of education
2.1. Attitudes towards children and childhood in Ancient Greece
It is easy to understand that the virtue of a man is
to deal with government affairs...
The virtue of a woman... is...
to manage the house well,
taking care of everything that is in it,
and remaining obedient to her husband.
Plato. "Menon"
The transition from the traditions of the communal-tribal system to the state, polis system caused many changes in all areas of people's lives. Matriarchy gave way to patriarchy and entrenched monogamy. The father, the head of the family, was recognized as having unlimited power over his children and wife.
It was believed that marriage pursues two goals: national and private family. The first purpose of the marriage was to increase the number of citizens who could take over from their fathers responsibilities towards the state: to guard the borders and repel enemy attacks. The second purpose of marriage is to fulfill one’s duty to the family and clan, for children continued the family line and took over the activities of their fathers, as well as preserved family traditions and preserved the cult of ancestors.
The position of a free woman was not much different from that of a slave. A man marries a woman in order to give birth to legitimate children; There was no love marriage. A man must be at least thirty years old at the time of marriage, and a girl must be a little over fifteen. Marriage is a contract that imposes obligations on only one of the parties. The husband may abandon his wife and retain the children by a simple declaration before witnesses, subject to the repayment of the dowry or the payment of interest thereon. Divorce at the request of a wife is permitted in rare cases, and then only by virtue of a court order caused by serious misconduct by the husband or his scandalous infidelity. However, the husband’s infidelity does not contradict morals - it is legalized by custom. The husband does not deprive himself of either his cohabitants or courtesans. In a speech attributed to Demosthenes, we can see clear evidence of this: “We have courtesans to entertain us, mistresses to take care of us, and wives to bear legitimate children.”
The legal wife must be the daughter of a citizen. She is raised in the gynecium (the female half of the house) - this is both her domain and her prison. Having no rights from birth until death, when she gets married, she only changes her guardian. Having been widowed, she has to transfer all rights to her eldest son. She can never leave the gynaecium, where she supervises the work of the slaves and takes part in it herself. Only occasionally is she allowed to visit her parents or go to the bathhouse, but always under the watchful supervision of a slave. Sometimes she is accompanied by her ruler, her husband. She doesn't even go to the market. She does not know her husband’s friends, is not present at the parties where they gather and where husbands bring their mistresses.
So here we, in fact, are forced to consider the upbringing of only free (legitimate, recognized) male children, since it turns out that slaves and women were not actually considered people. The former were living instruments of production and belonged entirely to the owner, while the latter were a means for reproduction and raising offspring.
The birth of a child was a solemn event for the family. If a boy was born, the doors of the house were decorated with olive branches, and when a girl was born, with woolen threads. The baby was bathed in water to which olive oil was added in Athens and wine in Sparta. After that, he was wrapped in swaddling clothes and placed in a cradle made of willow twigs. If the father decided to recognize the child and accept him into the family, then on the fifth or seventh day after birth, an “amphidomy” holiday (circumvention) was held: the father lifted the child from the ground and carried him around the hearth
If the father did not recognize the child, then he was simply thrown out of the house, which was practically tantamount to death. Only one thing could save him - if someone picked him up and recognized him as theirs. This practice was carried out practically throughout Greece, and in Sparta, as is known, weak and sick children, by decision of the city elders, were killed by throwing them from the edge of the Taygetos abyss. This was done primarily for economic and political reasons, because such a child would become a burden for the state and would not be able to protect him. This was also practiced, again for economic reasons, in order to reduce the birth rate, especially in relation to girls. There should not be many women, since they cannot perform the same functions as men, they need to be supported. Greek families usually had no more than three children, so as not to divide the inherited property into many parts, which could lead to the ruin of the citizens, and with them the state.
But, as already mentioned, the child could have been picked up. In most policies, the picking citizen could, at his discretion, treat the child either as his freeborn or as a slave. Slaves had no rights, they could not even start a family, they could only cohabit with the permission of the owner, but he could sell them at any time, and separately. So children were selected mainly in order to raise a slave and then sell it at a profit.
If the father recognized the child, then on the tenth day he was given a name; names were mainly invented or named after grandparents. A big celebration was held in honor of the naming ceremony.
A child under seven years old - both a boy and a girl - was under the supervision of his mother or nanny. They lived with their mother in the female half of the house - the gynecium. Often children were fed not by their mother, but by nurses—healthy, impoverished women or slaves. Women from Sparta also often became nannies and wet nurses; they were famous not only for their excellent health, but also for their harsh education methods, which were supposed to help raise a strong and healthy child. Children under seven years of age walked mostly naked, this was explained by the Greek unpretentiousness in clothing and practicality.
At two or three years old, boys passed from the hands of wet nurses to the supervision of teachers, special slaves who, for one reason or another, could not do housework (from two words from;;;; (“pais”) - child and;;; (“ago " - I lead), he had to constantly look after the child, and subsequently take him to school.
The Greeks well understood how important, although not easy, to maintain moderation in raising children, without resorting to too harsh methods, but also not allowing the child to grow up spoiled and pampered.
“Effeminacy makes the character of children heavy, hot-tempered and very impressionable to little things; on the contrary, excessively brutal enslavement of children makes them degraded, ignoble, hating people, so that in the end they become unfit for life together.” Here Plato talks about observing moderation in raising children; a golden mean must be found everywhere, especially in education. We will talk in more detail about the views of philosophers on raising children below.
The child grew up and little by little his horizons became wider and the world of his ideas richer. This happened thanks to fairy tales, toys, joint games and communication with peers. Very young children played with simple toys rattles, older children could play with real or toy animals (they were carved from wood or sculpted from clay). Dolls were very popular. They were made from fabric, clay, wood and especially expensive ones from ivory, many had movable limbs. There were miniature furniture and dishes for them. It should also be noted that in Ancient Greece there was a puppet theater.
Older children made toys for themselves from clay or wax, they built sand palaces, jumped on sticks, harnessed dogs or goats to strollers or small carts, played blind man's buff, this game was called “bronze fly” for some unknown reason, the rules of the game are not known for certain . The little Hellenes knew swings, hoops and even kites.
But most of all, the children loved outdoor games. In them, like modern preschoolers, they imitated the young Hellenes. They organized running and jumping competitions, but most of all they loved playing ball. The ball game was called "basilinda", the rules are again unknown, it is known that the winner was given the title of the king - "basileus", the loser received the nickname "donkey". Children, unlike adults, used soft balls (filled with feathers or wool), while hard balls were stuffed with horsehair or sand. Another game is known called “chitrind”, its essence was that one of the private traders, sitting on the ground, had to grab one of his comrades, who at that time pestered him in every possible way, and he, in turn, did not had the right to get up from his seat. These and similar games prepared children for the harsh life of adolescence, which began at the age of seven, when childhood ended, and the boys came under the care of their father (they lived in the male half of the house and obeyed their father) and went to school. The girls remained in the gyneceum, under the supervision of their mother and a slave nanny.
Despite the fact that children spent more time in the enclosed part of the house - the gyneceum, the general social conditions of life nevertheless influenced them. On the one hand, these influences may seem negative: complete ignorance of life, hostility and contempt for slaves, disdain for physical labor, a vague awareness of the enormous difference in the position of father and mother, and confidence in the complete “legitimacy” of this difference that has already been strengthened. But on the other hand, children, as at all times, were curious, or rather inquisitive, they were interested in everything around them, they wanted to quickly become adults, to discover and understand all the wonders of this world. The school revealed all this to them.
We can conditionally call this period of children’s lives preschool home education, since the child (boy) was one way or another prepared for the next stage - school.
2.2. The educational system in force in Ancient Greece
Here we will look at the educational system in force in the classical era in Ancient Greece, and we will compare the two most outstanding of them: Athenian and Spartan.
In Athens, education was not strictly compulsory, but, nevertheless, was considered the duty of parents towards their children. Plato notes on this issue that children who are not given an education are completely free from any obligations to their parents. From the age of seven, boys had to go to school. All schools were fee-paying. An important element of school education was the combination of “gymnastic” and “musical”, that is, physical and mental development. The synthesis of these two elements was to become the classical balance of body and spirit, the ideal of “kalokagathia” - beauty and goodness, fused together in a person. For the best result, the principle of competition was used - agonistic, noble and fair competition. This principle came to the school from the Olympic Games.
From seven to thirteen or fourteen years old, boys studied at the school of a grammarian and a citharist (at the same time or first at the school of a grammarian, then a citharist). At the grammar school, teachers taught children reading, writing, and counting. Counting was taught with the help of fingers; pebbles and a special counting board resembling an abacus (abacus) were also used. Children wrote on waxed boards with thin sticks (stylus). At the harpist's school, the boys received a literary education, and here they were specially trained in aesthetic education - they were taught to sing, recite, and play musical instruments. First they read the old writers Homer and Aesop with their wise fables, then they studied the poems of Hesiod, the poems of the legislator Solon, and the works of Theognis. The cithara teacher instilled in the boys the skills of playing the lyre or cithara. To the sound of these instruments, they sang songs and hymns - solo or in chorus.
At the age of thirteen or fourteen, teenagers went to the palaestra, where they engaged in physical exercises and mastered the pentathlon (running, wrestling, javelin and discus throwing, swimming). The most respected citizens held conversations with students on political and moral themes.
The rich slave owners of Athens sent their children at the age of sixteen to the gymnasium, where they continued to improve in the art of pentathlon and also studied the basics of philosophy and literature. Much attention was paid to poetry and music. The task of the students was not only to master a certain number of texts and the ability to pronounce them in appropriate situations (at religious festivals, at feasts, etc.) The teenager was supposed to derive a deeper benefit from this reading: poetry was called upon to serve aesthetic education. Music served the same purpose.
At the age of eighteen, as in Sparta, young men transferred to ephebia, where their military-physical training continued for two years. Enrollment in ephebia coincided with the civil age of majority and was conditioned by it. Enrollment in ephebia was associated with taking an oath of allegiance to serving the state. Taking the oath turned the young man into a civilly competent person, giving him the right of inheritance, the right of guardianship (by the way, over his mother), the right to dispose of property, everything except participation in political life. The ephebes swore an oath that they would not disgrace the weapons entrusted to them, would not abandon their comrades in trouble, and would defend home altars and the borders of the state.
The ephebes performed physical exercises under the guidance of a trainer - pedotrib, and the instructor - didaskal - was directly involved in military training. The ephebes were taught fencing, archery, javelin throwing and horse riding. The curriculum also included further training in poetry and music, since one of the duties of the ephebes was to actively participate in state celebrations. Education in ephebeia at different times lasted from two to four years.
Girls in Athens remained in the gyneceum, they were taught women's crafts: spinning and weaving. Although the girls did not attend school, they were taught to read and write, because the future wife of a citizen must be educated. The girls' education program included singing and dancing, which was necessary for participation in religious and social celebrations. The girls also studied literature, but from talking in literary themes among men they were aloof. In male society, only hetaeras (courtesans) could shine with wit and erudition, but never freeborn women.
In Sparta, the situation was different: from the age of seven, the boy came under the care of the state, that is, he was simply taken away from his family. They were sent to special institutions - angels, where they were kept until the age of eighteen. The main emphasis was on physical development; there was no talk of comprehensive and harmonious development; it was believed that if a person is physically developed, then everything else will follow.
Education in the angels was led by paedonoms, people specially allocated by the state. The students were divided into two groups: juniors or boys from seven to fourteen, and ephebes from fourteen to eighteen to twenty years old.
At the first stage, elementary intellectual training was given; among the Spartans it was limited to the ability to read and write, knowledge of several military and religious songs, as well as some information about the traditions of Sparta, its history, religion and rituals. Also, much attention was paid to the development of “laconic speech” in children. The greatest attention was paid to the military-physical training of children, they were taught to run, jump, wrestle, throw a discus and a spear, they were taught to unquestioningly obey their elders, to despise slaves and their main occupation - physical labor, to be merciless towards slaves. The training was severe: children were taught perseverance and endurance, the ability to endure any hardships and hardships, hunger, cold, pain, and a readiness for hiking, sports training, and possession of weapons. At the end of this stage, the teenagers faced a test in which endurance and readiness for further tests were tested. The teenager was severely whipped in front of the altar of Artemis, he was not supposed to make a sound. Another test for teenagers was cripia - raids on the settlements of slaves - helots, with the aim of exterminating the most obstinate slaves. Here the ability to clearly and ruthlessly follow orders was tested.
Education was the work of the entire Spartan community; often military leaders and statesmen visited the angels and had conversations with children on moral and political topics, were present at the competitions, admonished and punished the guilty.
The second stage, from fourteen to eighteen to twenty years old, took place in ephebia. Real warriors have already been trained here. The young men were taught to master all types of weapons, the rules of warfare, etc. Before the end of their training, the young men passed the last test, it was called cryptia: for a whole year the young man had to wander through the mountains and valleys, moreover, hiding so that he could not be found by himself getting food for themselves and sleeping right on the ground. After serving the kripia, the young man became an irene, he became a man, and now he could take part in the joint meals of men accepted in Sparta - fidityas. He was enlisted in the army, in which he was obliged to serve until the age of thirty, only after which the young Spartan could be considered a full citizen.
Girls in Sparta were raised at home, but in their upbringing, physical development, military training, and teaching them how to manage slaves came first. They were trained to be the mothers of future citizen-soldiers. Girls did gymnastics just like boys, and practiced running, discus throwing and wrestling. But, just as in Athens, since they had to take part in religious rites, they were taught sacred songs and dances. When the men went to war, the women themselves guarded their city and kept the slaves in obedience.
One might get the impression that training ended at these levels, but this was far from the case. Young men could continue their studies with philosophers. The first philosophical teachers were the Sophists, opponents of Socrates and Plato, who took payment for their services. The sophists were men of science of that time, they conducted their scientific research in the field of mythology, genealogy, biography, history, compiled lists of great events and lists of winners in Olympic Games. Unlike Socrates or Plato, who conducted their teaching in the form of dialogues, the sophists gave lectures to a group of listeners. For, as the philosopher Cleobulus said: “It is more to listen than to speak.” Only in this way, by listening to the teacher, could the young man learn their wisdom. The goal of the teaching activities of the sophists was still the same - to prepare a good citizen for the state. The main attention was paid to teaching rhetoric - the art of making speeches, as well as heuristics - the art of arguing and refuting the opponent’s arguments by any means. Accordingly, for the best result, the student needed a broad literary and historical education in order to have reliable support in his arguments.
The Greek system of “higher” education reached its peak at the end of the 4th century BC. e., especially in two areas: rhetoric and philosophy. The first was represented by Isocrates (436 BC - 338 BC), who founded in 392 BC. e. school of rhetoric, the second Plato, he in 388 BC. e. opened his famous academy, which became one of the leading educational centers for many centuries.
2.3. Ideas about the ideal person and psychological and pedagogical views on the upbringing of children by leading philosophers of Ancient Greece
We have already noted that philosophy, the first of the sciences to appear in Ancient Greece, took a central place in explaining the existence of man and the world. Ancient Greek philosophers in their works tried to generalize all aspects of human spiritual and material life. In their research, much attention was paid to raising children.
The first philosophers first turned their attention to man as a whole, to the problems of his essence, the meaning of life, etc. They generously shared advice on how to act in certain situations, how to achieve the ideal, how to become happy.
Here are some sayings of the seven sages:
“You don’t have to be good-looking, but good-natured”; “How you supported your parents, expect the same support from your children” (Thales).
"Know yourself"; “Don’t rush to make friends, and once you have made them, don’t leave them” (Solon of Athens).
“He who is strong must also be kind” (Chilo from Sparta).
“What's best? It’s good to do what you do” (Pittacus).
“Only a sick soul can be deaf to someone else’s misfortune” (Biant).
Here are some more statements by philosophers of Ancient Greece about training and education:
“Correctly carried out teaching... must occur according to the mutual desire of the teacher and student”; “Every study of sciences and arts, if it is voluntary, then correctly achieves its goal, but if involuntary, then it is worthless and ineffective” (Pythagoras).
« Good people become more from exercise than from nature... education rebuilds a person and creates (a second) nature for him”; “If children were not forced to work, they would not learn literacy, music, gymnastics, or that which strengthens virtue - shame” (Democritus).
These and many other statements of the ancient sages, who were looking for the ideals of the good and the beautiful in man, gave people an idea of what they should be like, how to relate to each other, to laws, religion, and the state.
Also, for a long time, the ideal of the Greek was “arete” - virtue, valor. At first, during the Homeric period, this concept rather reflected a pragmatic attitude to life, achieving success, and ensuring personal interests. But with the development of philosophical thought, and with it morality, “arete” in the Classical era became the ideal of human behavior, a pure virtue that can and should be learned.
From the above it follows that the goal of ancient Greek pedagogy is to educate a virtuous person and, as a result, a good citizen. This issue, among others, was dealt with by two particularly outstanding sages of Ancient Greece, Plato and, subsequently, his student Aristotle.
Socrates, and after him Plato, considered human life not only for themselves, but also for society and political life. Plato divided “arete” into four components: wisdom, courage, prudence, justice. Aristotle derived his formula: man is a social being, and the highest degree of virtue is activity in the name of fellow citizens, for the good of the state. But Aristotle notes that this virtue is acquired not by teaching or conviction, but by the habit of good deeds. Well, a habit, of course, is formed in childhood and reinforced by the favorable environment in which a person is raised.
Plato built his own pedagogical system, which he outlined in his works “State” and “Laws”. In them he describes the ideal model of the state, and his pedagogical system is an integral part of his draft political constitution. This educational system of his is a necessary prerequisite for achieving good political system.
Plato's ideal state rests on a unique division of labor among free citizens: philosophers, warriors, artisans and farmers. Each class has its own rights and responsibilities and should not interfere with the functions of others. Such a clear division is determined by the structure of the human soul, which comes to the world of things from the world of ideas, and which of its three parts predominates determines the functions of a person. Those people who have a predominance of reason in their souls will become rulers-philosophers, those who have a predominance of will will become warriors, and those who have a predominance of feelings will become artisans and farmers. The first two classes are dominant, the first rules, the second protects, and the third provides the ruling classes.
In organizing education, Plato pays great attention to the age of children. He divides the entire education time into several periods. The first two last three years each, and during these first six years of life, children must be raised by a mother and a nanny. The first period takes place mainly at home, this is “a considerable period of life to begin to live well or badly,” when it is necessary to achieve the child’s “meekness” so that he can “accept fair compromises with joy.”
In the second period, children should be brought together:
“All children... from three to six years old, let them gather in sanctuaries in places of settlement, so that the children of all residents are there together. Nurses should ensure that children of this age are modest and not promiscuous. Twelve women will be placed above the nurses themselves and over this entire flock of children - one for each flock, to monitor its order. Once children reach the age of six, they are separated by gender. Boys hang out with boys, just like girls do with girls. But both of them must turn to teaching.”
Plato also demanded that adults monitor children's games: children must strictly follow the rules of the game and not introduce any innovations into them; otherwise, having become accustomed to this in the game, they will want to make changes to the laws of the slave state, but this cannot be allowed. Plato believed at the same time that “all sciences should be taught to children not by force, but playfully,” for “a free person should not learn any science slavishly.” He devoted a large place in his upbringing to songs and dances.
“A correct life should in no way pursue only pleasure and should not avoid grief... The mental form of children of three, four, five and even six years old needs games, although it is already necessary to take measures, without humiliating them, so that they do not become capricious. There is no need to provoke anger in the souls of children with excessive punishments, nor to accustom them to inconstancy through indulgences. At this age... you need to keep order among children and prevent their bad behavior.”
After the age of six, “teachers must teach boys horse riding, archery, javelin throwing, and sling throwing.” Girls, if they want, can also train with boys in these exercises. From this moment, the third, already four-year stage of training begins, in which double education is necessary: physical and mental. The first is promoted by gymnastics, the second by music.
This is followed by two more three-year periods, during which the young men are taught language, playing the lyre, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. “Mathematical and astronomical knowledge contributes to the training of children in formations, campaigns and military campaigns, as well as household administration, and generally makes them more useful and intelligent.”
So, all training lasts exactly ten years and ends at the age of sixteen. Plato notes that “it is not permissible for the father or the child himself to increase or decrease this study time established by law.” Then the young man is obliged to serve military service, only after which he will become a full citizen of the Greek polis.
At this stage, the education of those who, according to their capabilities, should remain in the category of warriors, artisans, farmers and merchants ends. Only persons in whom the rational part of the soul predominates study philosophy until the age of 30, develop abstract thinking, studying geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, music theory for these purposes, and prepare for government activity. Those who stand out in this group as the strongest intellectually continue their studies and, having mastered philosophy, become rulers of an ideal state.
Aristotle developed his own philosophical system. In it, the world, unlike Plato, was one, and the ideas of things in this world are inseparable from the things themselves. Every thing is a unity of matter and form. The same is with the human soul, consisting of three parts: plant (nutrition and reproduction), animal (sensations and desires) and rational (thinking and knowledge), which is capable of subordinating the animal and plant parts to its will. In accordance with these parts of the soul, Aristotle identified three areas of education: physical, moral and mental, which, in essence, constitute one whole - a harmoniously developed person. Accordingly, all these aspects of the human soul must be equally developed.
Aristotle created his own periodization of education. It lasted 21 years and was divided into three stages: from birth to 7 years ( preschool age), from 7 to 14 (school age) and from 14 to 21 years ( adolescence) .
Until the age of seven, children are raised in a family. During this period, plant life predominates in the souls of children, therefore, the body should be well developed. Children need to move, strengthen themselves and play. Children should engage in age-appropriate games, it is useful for them to listen to stories and fairy tales, and children should be taught correct speech.
From the age of seven, boys go to school, while girls are raised at home. Aristotle noted that schools should only be state schools, because caring for the younger generation is the primary concern of the state. In schools, children, first of all, go to gymnastics teachers who take care of their physical education. In addition, at school children learn reading, writing, counting, drawing and music.
Aristotle, in his work “Politics,” in which, like his teacher, devotes sufficient attention to education, says: “Four subjects are usually taught: reading and writing, gymnastics, music, and sometimes in fourth place, drawing.”
Aristotle notes that music lessons should not be an obstacle to “military and civilian training, first physical and then theoretical.” He also reveals goals musical education, it forms complacency, firmness and self-control in young men. He also cautions that “you cannot overtrain your mind and body at the same time.” But at the same time, excessive physical training, for which the Spartans are so famous, is also unacceptable. About them he says: “They reduce children to a bestial state through hard labor,” thus making them “suitable for performing only one of the functions of a citizen.”
Aristotle makes a great distinction between “disciplines that are utilitarian in life and disciplines that lead to virtue, that is, non-utilitarian.” In particular, he defends non-utilitarian disciplines, particularly leisure and play. “Nature itself strives not only to work well, but also to make good use of leisure, which is the beginning of all things.” He says about games: “They are not the purpose of our life, but are intended for relaxation.” “It is necessary to introduce games, choosing the right moments to enjoy them and use them as medicine, since they cause a movement of the mood that leads to a decrease in tension, and through such pleasure comes relaxation.”
Aristotle expressed the basic idea of Greek education in these words: “It is obvious, then, that there is an education that should be given to children, not because it is useful, but because it leads to freedom and nobility. Thus, the main role in education should be played by everything noble, and not bestial, since neither a wolf nor any other animal will take a beautiful risk, but only a good person.”
Having examined the philosophical and pedagogical views of Plato and Aristotle, we can say that the Greek idea of education was that it should be holistic, integral, that is, complete, consisting of all the necessary components, in accordance with the Hellenic classical principle of “everything in moderation.” , nothing too much." Today these parts of education could be designated as intellectual education, artistic education, sports and military education. All these parts in Greece formed one inseparable harmonious whole.
This is the pedagogical merit of ancient Greek philosophy; it was the first to give an idea of a holistic, harmonious education, which was in effect until the very end of the Hellenistic era, but with the advent of Christianity it was forgotten for more than a millennium.
As we showed above, any educational system, be it Athenian or Spartan, sought to educate a harmoniously developed person (both physically and spiritually); this was the main goal of educational institutions that were controlled by the state.
The leading thinkers of Ancient Greece strove for the same thing, only in their own way. Aristotle in his work “Nicomachean Ethics” writes: “We must try to imagine, at least in general terms, what it is [the highest good] and which of the sciences... it relates to. We must, apparently, admit that it belongs to the jurisdiction of the most important [science], which mainly governs. And this is how the science of the state [or politics] appears. After all, it establishes what sciences are needed in the state and what sciences and to what extent everyone should study. We see that the most revered skills, such as skills in military leadership and management, are subordinated to this [science]. And since the science of the state uses the other sciences as means and, in addition, legislatively determines what actions should be performed or what to abstain from, then this goal will be the highest good for people.”
Thus, the entire education system in Ancient Greece was aimed at raising an ideal, harmoniously developed person; only such a person could become a worthy citizen of the country.
Ancient Greek judgments about a worthy citizen are very close to modern interpretations of patriotism and citizenship. But there is one key difference: for the ancient Greeks, this was one of the main qualities-virtues of a harmoniously developed person, for only such a person can be useful to the state, only such a person can develop a real civic sense based on love and reverence for his homeland, country and culture. A person in Ancient Greece was harmoniously integrated into the cultural system of the state; the very upbringing organized by the state confronted him with a reasonable understanding of his importance for the state - his homeland. The person himself reached this realization; for this, the state created all the conditions.
Conclusions on Chapter II
Analysis of the historical, cultural and psychological-pedagogical literature we studied allowed us to draw the following conclusions based on the facts we presented:
1. The family is not only a social means of increasing the number of citizens, it performed another important function - it provided the child with basic education, which can conventionally be called preschool;
2. Any educational system, be it Athenian or Spartan, sought to educate a harmoniously developed person (both physically and spiritually), this was the main goal of educational institutions that were controlled by the state;
3. Psychological and pedagogical ideas are contained both in the works of ancient Greek thinkers and in the system of ancient Greek education itself (theory and practice);
4. The most significant and qualitatively new psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of the history of Ancient Greece in the theory and practice of education are:
The idea of comprehensive and harmonious development;
- Voluntary and democratic education and training is the basis for comprehensive and harmonious development;
- A comprehensively and harmoniously developed person is a worthy citizen.
Chapter III.
Relevance of psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece for modern education
3.1. Experience in studying the relevance of psychological and pedagogical ideas of ancient Greek thinkers
Description of the experimental sample
To confirm our assumption that philosophical ideas and the ideals of ancient Greek education became the basis for the formation and subsequent development of pedagogy as a science and are relevant in modern education, we conducted a survey of experts in this field.
Description of the experimental sample.
1. Sample size.
Five groups of experts. The first - teachers of the state budgetary educational institution of the city of Moscow, kindergarten No. 524, numbering 15 people. The second is teachers of the state budgetary educational institution of secondary educational school No. 1194 of the city of Moscow (15 people), the third is teachers of the pedagogical faculty of the State educational institution of higher professional education of the city of Moscow, Moscow City Pedagogical University (15 people). The fourth - fourth year students of the pedagogical faculty of the State Budgetary Educational Institution of Moscow State Pedagogical University in the direction of "Pedagogy" with a profile in "Children's Practical Psychology" (15 people), the fifth - fourth year students of the pedagogical faculty of the State Budgetary Educational Institution of the Moscow State Pedagogical University in the specialty "Primary School Teacher" (15 people).
A total of 75 people.
2. Criteria for selecting an experimental sample:
We can explain this choice of expert groups by the following provisions:
Kindergarten teachers reflect the practical specifics of raising preschool children;
- School teachers reflect the practical specifics of raising and teaching children;
- Teachers of the pedagogical faculty of GBOU MSPU reflect the practical and theoretical specifics of training future teachers;
- Students and future teachers reflect their professional attitudes aimed at working with children of different ages.
3. Sample selection method:
The sample is representative, since the selected groups reflect the entire spectrum of the teaching profession, from students to university teachers.
Description of the stages of the experiment
To compile the questionnaire, we selected ten quotes from five of the most prominent ancient Greek philosophers, in which they express their views on education and training.
We have selected quotes that, in our opinion, have a connection with modern times and are relevant to one degree or another. We also tried to select sayings that reflect the main current ideas of ancient Greek education, which we are considering in our study. These are the following key ideas and quotes:
1. The idea of comprehensive and harmonious development:
1. “The mental form of children of three, four, five and even six years old needs games, although it is already necessary to take measures, without humiliating them, so that they do not become capricious. There is no need to provoke anger in the souls of children with excessive punishments, nor to accustom them to inconstancy through indulgences. At this age... you need to keep order among children and prevent their bad behavior” (Plato);
2. Aristotle expressed the basic idea of Greek education in these words: “So it is obvious that there is an education that should be given to children, not because it is useful, but because it leads to freedom and nobility. Thus, the main role in education should be played by everything noble, and not bestial, since neither a wolf nor any other animal will take a beautiful risk, but only a good person”;
2. Voluntary and democratic education and training is the basis for comprehensive and harmonious development:
3. “Correctly carried out teaching... must occur according to the mutual desire of the teacher and student” (Pythagoras);
4. “Every study of sciences and arts, if it is voluntary, then correctly achieves its goal, but if involuntary, then it is worthless and ineffective” (Pythagoras);
5. “If children were not forced to work, they would not learn literacy, music, gymnastics, or what strengthens virtue - shame” (Democritus);
6. Plato believed that “all sciences should be taught to children not by force, but playfully,” for “a free person should not learn any science slavishly”;
7. “Educators are even more worthy of respect than parents, for the latter give us only life, and the former give us a worthy life” (Aristotle);
3. A comprehensively and harmoniously developed person is a worthy citizen:
8. “They become good people rather from exercise than from nature... education rebuilds a person and creates (a second) nature for him” (Democritus);
9. “Those who are powerful in spirit... if they receive an education... become excellent... useful workers. Left without education, they can be very bad, harmful people” (Socrates);
10. “We must try to imagine, at least in general terms, what it is [the highest good] and which of the sciences... it is related to. We must, apparently, admit that it belongs to the jurisdiction of the most important [science], which mainly governs. And this is how the science of the state [or politics] appears. After all, it establishes what sciences are needed in the state, and what sciences and to what extent everyone should study. We see that the most revered skills, such as skills in military leadership and management, are subordinated to this [science]. And since the science of the state uses the other sciences as means and, in addition, legislatively determines what actions should be performed or what to abstain from, then this goal will be the highest good for people” (Aristotle).
It should be noted that these statements are extremely difficult to evaluate and interpret unambiguously; any interpretation will be more or less subjective. We have divided them into three categories, but these categories are also arbitrary. Some sayings contradict each other or reflect polar qualitative characteristics of the same phenomenon (for example, 3 and 5). We also included a controversial “provocative” quote from Aristotle (7), which we consider as irrelevant for today, since parents, as well as teachers, are full participants in the psychological and pedagogical process of teaching and raising children at all return stages.
In the questionnaire, we asked the respondent to answer the question: “Are you guided (or intend to be guided) by the provisions specified in the questionnaire in your teaching activities?” For each quote there are three answer options: “Yes”, “No”, “Difficult to answer”.
Each answer option is assigned a corresponding point:
“No” - 1;
“I find it difficult to answer” - 2.
We explain this distribution of points by the fact that any expert assessment of these sayings is subjective in nature and is based on the personal conviction and professional experience of the expert being interviewed, and that is why the category of answers “Difficult to answer” is assessed with two points. As we noted above, the interpretation of any of the sayings will always be subjective to one degree or another and may be far from unambiguous (i.e., not fall into the “yes” or “no” categories), but this does not at all mean complete agreement or disagreement with a saying, everyone can attach some meaning that is significant to them when interpreting the quotes we present.
A sample questionnaire is presented in Appendix 4.
results
The immediate results of the survey can be presented in the form of six tables (see Appendix 5).
Interpretation of results
Based on the average values, we can assess the degree of relevance of a particular quote, both in each group and as a whole. Since the maximum average value for each citation is "3" and the minimum is "1", we set four relevance criteria:
1. Completely irrelevant: from 1 to 1.5;
2. Irrelevant: from 1.5 to 2;
3. Moderately relevant: from 2 to 2.5;
4. Current: from 2.5 to 3.
We can explain this distribution of relevance criteria by the fact that since the category of answers “I find it difficult to answer” is assessed by us at two points, then everything that is higher than the value of “2” can be regarded as “to varying degrees relevant.”
1. IV year students of the pedagogical faculty of GBOU MSPU in the direction of "Pedagogy" profile "Children's practical psychology" (15 people)
1. Completely irrelevant: op. No. 8 (10%);
2. Irrelevant: cit. No. 3, No. 4, No. 9 (30%);
3. Moderately relevant: cit. No. 2, No. 5, No. 6, No. 10 (40%);
4. Current: cit. No. 1, No. 7 (20%).
The most relevant are cit. 1 (Pythagoras), op. 7 (Plato). Less significant are cit. 2 (Pythagoras), op. 5 (Socrates), op. 6 (Plato), op. 10 (Aristotle).
Irrelevant cit. 3 (Democritus), op. 4 (Democritus), op. 8 (Aristotle), op. 9 (Aristotle).
Aristotle’s “provocative” (cit. 8) saying turned out to be irrelevant in this group.
Thus, we can conclude that students in the “Pedagogy” major, “Children’s Practical Psychology” profile, in more than half of the cases evaluate the psychological and pedagogical sayings of ancient Greek thinkers as relevant.
2. Teachers of the state budgetary educational institution of Moscow, kindergarten No. 524 (15 people)
2. Irrelevant: cit. No. 5 (10%);
3. Moderately relevant: cit. No. 8, No. 10 (20%);
4. Current: cit. No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, No. 6, No. 7 (70%).
The most relevant are cit. 1 (Pythagoras), op. 2 (Pythagoras), op. 3 (Democritus), op. 4 (Democritus), op. 6 (Plato), op. 7 (Plato), op. 8 (Aristotle), op. 9 (Aristotle), op. 10 (Aristotle).
Irrelevant cit. 5 (Socrates).
The “provocative” (cit. 8) saying of Aristotle in this group turned out to be of moderate relevance; this can be explained by the very specifics of the group of educators.
Thus, we can conclude that educators express almost complete agreement with the psychological and pedagogical sayings of ancient Greek thinkers.
3. IV year students of the pedagogical faculty of the State Budgetary Educational Institution of Moscow State Pedagogical University, majoring in “Primary school teacher” (15 people)
1. Not at all relevant: - (0%);
2. Irrelevant: cit. No. 8 (10%);
3. Moderately relevant: cit. No. 3, No. 4, No. 5 (30%);
4. Current: cit. No. 1, No. 2, No. 6, No. 7, No. 9, No. 10 (60%).
The average degree of relevance of sayings for the group is 90%.
The most relevant are cit. 1 (Pythagoras), op. 2 (Pythagoras), op. 3. (Democritus), op. 4 (Democritus), op. 5 (Socrates), op. 6 (Plato), op. 7 (Plato), op. 9 (Aristotle), cit 10. (Aristotle).
The “provocative” quote is irrelevant. 8 (Aristotle).
The relevance indicators of the psychological and pedagogical sayings of ancient Greek thinkers in the group of students studying the specialty “Primary School Teacher” are generally above average and close to the relevance indicators of educators.
4. Teachers of the state budgetary educational institution of secondary educational school No. 1194 in Moscow (15 people)
1. Not at all relevant: - (0%);
2. Irrelevant: cit. No. 2, No. 3, No. 7, No. 10 (40%);
3. Moderately relevant: cit. No. 1, No. 5, No. 6, No. 8, No. 9 (50%);
4. Current: cit. No. 4 (10%).
The average degree of relevance of sayings for the group is 60%.
The most relevant are cit. 1 (Pythagoras), op. 4 (Democritus), op. 5 (Socrates), op. 6 (Plato), op. 8 (Aristotle), op. 9 (Aristotle).
Irrelevant cit. 2 (Pythagoras), op. 3 (Democritus), op. 7 (Plato), op. 10 (Aristotle).
Aristotle’s “provocative” saying (cit. 8) turned out to be average in this group.
The assessment of the relevance of the psychological and pedagogical ideas of ancient Greek thinkers by teachers is quite contradictory: some of the sayings that were relevant in other groups turned out to be completely irrelevant, while the rest have rather low indicators of relevance.
5. Teachers of the pedagogical faculty of GBOU MSPU (15 people)
1. Not at all relevant: - (0%);
2. Not relevant: - (0%);
3. Moderately relevant: cit. No. 3, No. 4, No. 5, No. 8, No. 9, 10 (60%);
4. Current: cit. No. 1, No. 2, No. 6, No. 7 (40%).
The average degree of relevance of sayings for the group is 100%.
In this group, all the psychological and pedagogical sayings of ancient Greek thinkers are relevant to one degree or another. Quote 7 (Plato) about preschool education received the highest rating of relevance in this group.
The “provocative” saying of Aristotle (cited 8) was rated by teachers as average.
1. Not at all relevant: - (0%);
2. Irrelevant: No. 5, No. 8 (20%);
3. Moderately relevant: cit. No. 3, No. 4, No. 9, No. 10 (40%);
4. Current: cit. No. 1, No. 2, No. 6, No. 7 (40%)
The average degree of relevance of sayings for all respondents is 80%.
The overall rating of quotes allows us to conclude that the following sayings are relevant: cit. 1 (Pythagoras), op. 2 (Pythagoras), op. 3 (Democritus), op. 4 (Democritus), op. 6 (Plato), op. 7 (Plato), op. 9 (Aristotle), op. 10 (Aristotle).
We share the position of experts and believe that these quotes reflect key psychological and pedagogical ideas that were formed during that period and are relevant to one degree or another at the present time.
Let's list them in order of importance (relevance):
1. Pythagoras: “Correctly carried out teaching... must occur according to the mutual desire of the teacher and student”;
2. Plato: “The mental form of children three, four, five and even six years old needs games, although it is already necessary to take measures, without humiliating them, so that they do not become capricious. There is no need to provoke anger in the souls of children with excessive punishments, nor to accustom them to inconstancy through indulgences. At this age... you need to keep order among children and prevent their bad behavior”;
3. Plato believed that “all sciences should be taught to children not by force, but playfully,” for “a free person should not learn any science slavishly”;
4. Pythagoras: “Every study of sciences and arts, if it is voluntary, then correctly achieves its goal, but if involuntary, then it is worthless and ineffective”;
5. Democritus: “If children were not forced to work, they would not learn literacy, music, gymnastics, or what strengthens virtue - shame”;
6. Aristotle expressed the basic idea of Greek education in these words: “So it is obvious that there is an education that should be given to children, not because it is useful, but because it leads to freedom and nobility. Thus, the main role in education should be played by everything noble, and not bestial, since neither a wolf nor any other animal will take a beautiful risk, but only a good person”;
7. Democritus: “Good people become better from exercise rather than from nature... education rebuilds a person and creates (a second) nature for him”;
8. Aristotle: “We must try to imagine, at least in general terms, what it is [the highest good] and which of the sciences... it is related to. We must, apparently, admit that it belongs to the jurisdiction of the most important [science], which mainly governs. And this is how the science of the state [or politics] appears. After all, it establishes what sciences are needed in the state, and what sciences and to what extent everyone should study. We see that the most revered skills, such as skills in military leadership and management, are subordinated to this [science]. And since the science of the state uses other sciences as means and, in addition, legislatively determines what actions should be performed or what to abstain from, then this goal will be the highest good for people.”
The survey also showed that some quotes from ancient Greek thinkers are perceived by experts as irrelevant. The irrelevance of Socrates’ saying “Those who are mighty in spirit... if they receive an education... become excellent... useful workers. Left without education, they can be very bad, harmful people” is connected, in our opinion, with the fact that most experts are convinced that a person’s level of education does not determine his personal qualities. We explain the irrelevance of Aristotle’s saying “Educators are even more worthy of respect than parents, for the latter give us only life, and the former a decent life” by the fact that experts, being professional teachers, know from theory and practice that parents and teachers are full participants in the psychological and pedagogical process of teaching and raising children at all return stages.
The relevance of the ideas we are considering can be presented in the form of a table:
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Thus, we can conclude that what we presented for expert assessment the sayings of ancient Greek philosophers, which reflect the current psychological and pedagogical ideas that we have identified, formed during that period, are relevant to one degree or another to this day. The sayings we have selected reflect the current ideas we have identified from the classical period of Ancient Greece, and accordingly, these ideas are relevant for modern education.
3.2. Comparative analysis of the ancient Greek education system and the legislative framework of modern education
As we showed in the first part of the work, ancient Greek civilization is in a sense the cradle of modern European civilization. Of course, when making comparisons, many historical and cultural factors should be taken into account, but, nevertheless, enough parallels can be drawn with modern times.
In the previous paragraph, we presented the results of a study to study the relevance of the psychological and pedagogical ideas of ancient Greek thinkers using questionnaires and expert assessment.
In this paragraph, we have made an attempt to identify the relevance of the psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece on the basis of a comparative analysis of the ancient Greek system of education (which, as we have shown, in turn was included in the social and state system of ancient Greek society) and the modern legislative framework on issues education.
The comparative analysis should begin with the fundamental document of the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
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When considering more specific issues regarding the modern education system and the ancient Greek education system, for a comparative analysis, we turned to the new Federal Law “On Education in the Russian Federation.”
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Having carried out this comparative analysis, we showed that, despite the many centuries that separate us, the organization of the educational system in Ancient Greece and the legislative and legal organization of the modern education system have many points of contact. As we noted above, Ancient Greece is the cradle of modern European civilization, and that is why it is possible to draw similar parallels affecting various aspects of the organization of the educational process, starting with human rights and freedoms and the right to education, ending with more specific issues: the humanistic nature of education , its levels and content.
Thus, we can conclude that, if we take into account the cultural and historical characteristics of the era of human development we are considering, the level of organization and principles of the ancient Greek education system are similar to modern views on the organization of upbringing and education of the younger generation from the legislative and legal position of the state.
The current psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece that we identified above are reflected in the following documents of the modern legislative framework on education:
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Conclusions on Chapter III
Analysis of the study of psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece allows us to draw the following conclusions:
1. The sayings of ancient Greek philosophers presented by us for expert evaluation are relevant to one degree or another to this day. Accordingly, the current ideas we have identified from the classical period of Ancient Greece, reflected in these sayings, are relevant for modern education;
2. The current psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece that we have identified are reflected in the main documents of the modern legislative framework on education.
CONCLUSION
In this work, we examined the psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece and their relevance for modern education.
In the first chapter of our study, based on the historical and cultural factors that we have identified, we revealed the key features of Ancient Greek civilization and showed their influence on the formation of culture and society. These features provided the conditions for the free, practically unrestricted all-round development of man, the comprehensive disclosure of his physical and spiritual capabilities. The very possibility of “singling out” a person’s personality from the general mass has appeared.
In the second chapter of the work, we revealed the social features of the situation of childhood in Ancient Greek civilization, and also characterized the leading educational systems (Athenian and Spartan) and showed that, despite their exceptional characteristics, they sought to educate a harmoniously developed person (both physically and spiritually) . Consideration of psychological and pedagogical ideas contained both in the works of ancient Greek thinkers and in the system of ancient Greek education itself (theory and practice), allowed us to highlight the most significant and qualitatively new psychological and pedagogical ideas of the classical period of Ancient Greece that are relevant for modern education:
1. The idea of comprehensive and harmonious development;
2. Voluntary and democratic education and training is the basis for comprehensive and harmonious development;
3. A comprehensively and harmoniously developed person is a worthy citizen.
In the third chapter of this work, thanks to a survey of experts, we identified the relevance of the psychological and pedagogical ideas we identified from the classical period of Ancient Greece, and also showed that if we take into account the cultural and historical characteristics of the era of human development we are considering, current psychological and pedagogical ideas find their reflection in the main documents of the modern legislative framework on education issues.
Based on the conducted research, we can draw a fundamental conclusion:
Ancient Greek society took shape in the process of its historical and cultural development. Thanks to the borrowed multi-component and multi-model culture of Ancient Greece, which gave impetus to the rapid development of language, writing, mathematics and literature, in parallel with which philosophy developed, the idea of an ideal harmoniously developed person received the opportunity and means for its implementation. On the basis of this and the social structure, a family model and a certain attitude towards family, children and childhood, as well as existing education systems, were formed. In parallel with these processes and thanks to them, a philosophy developed that paid more and more attention to the education of future generations. On the basis of all of the above, she completed the creation of an ideal, unattainable image of education and a perfect harmoniously developed person, creator and inhabitant of an ideal state, which, like a perfect person, could not exist in view of the historically established society and the vector of its development, different from the ideal views of philosophers. Thus, the legacy of ancient Greek education developed, consisting of two components: ideal views on a person and his upbringing and the existing educational systems. This heritage, in turn, became the basis for the formation of a universal model of European education, in which through the centuries these ideas and “working” models developed and became the basis of modern pedagogy. All this can be presented in the form of a diagram (see Appendix 3).
From the ancient Greek heritage of education (theory and practice), we have identified the most, in our opinion, relevant psychological and pedagogical ideas and tried to show their emergence and development, as well as their relevance for modern education.
Thus, the hypothesis of our study can be considered proven.
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