Message on the topic on the path to unity. Presentation on the theme "Germany on the way to unity"

Pavlov N.V.

FOREIGN POLICY OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE

The unified national state is a relatively new phenomenon for the German nation, and the path to it spanned more than one century. It arose only in 1871, when the process of formation of nation-states in Europe had largely ended. Therefore, the Germans are called "a belated nation." If we compare the duration of a particular period in German history, it turns out that the first unified nation-state - the Kaiser Empire - lasted 48 years, the Weimar Republic - 14 years, the Third Reich - 12 years, and the Federal Republic has existed for more than 60 years - an absolute record in German history after 1871. What explains the rise and fall of the German Empire of the XIX-XX centuries. from point of view foreign policy and the then alignment of international forces?
^ Road to German unity

After France, led since 1799 by the Corsican Napoleon Bonaparte, reached the banks of the Rhine, she achieved a new territorial division of Germany. The strategic goal was to eliminate the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. On August 6, 1806, under pressure from Napoleon, Franz II abdicated the throne of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, and it formally ceased to exist.

In the autumn of 1806, Napoleon invaded Saxony and then Prussia, led by Friedrich Wilhelm III (1797-1840). The outbreak of the war ended with the complete defeat of Prussia after the battles of Jena and Auerstedt. Most of the Prussian fortresses capitulated. Prussia was crushed to dust. On October 27 (14), 1806, Napoleon entered Berlin. The court fled to Konigsberg, and later to Memel. Military assistance from Russia under Alexander I (1801-1825) came too late. Prussia lost all its territories west of the Elbe, as well as all the conquered Polish regions, which were turned by Napoleon into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Squeezed between the henchmen of Napoleon, overlaid with exorbitant indemnities and occupied by French troops, Prussia turned into a vassal of France. On July 8, 1807, Russia and France concluded the Peace of Tilsit (a peace treaty between France and Prussia was also signed on the same day), according to which Prussia lost almost half of its territory and population.

In 1810 - 1811. Napoleon annexed all of northwestern Germany with the cities of Lübeck, Hamburg, Bremen and Oldenburg. The expansion of France with its innovations had a tremendous impact on the development and modernization of not only the economy, but also the state system and public life German states, especially in the west and south of Germany. In Saxony, mechanical engineering received a powerful development. In the Ruhr area - metallurgical production. But the greatest changes affected Prussia.

Defeated by Napoleon, Prussia carried out a series of fundamental internal reforms that ultimately prepared the basis for the rise of national consciousness and liberation from French oppression. These reforms included: separation of legislative and executive powers; introduction of local self-government; the abolition of serfdom and peasant taxes; reforming the school system (an eight-year folk school, classical gymnasiums, the foundation of the University of Berlin); the introduction of freedom of enterprise, which served as an impetus for industrialization; the introduction of universal military service, the creation of a people's militia (landwehr) and a modern general staff.

On June 12 (24), 1812, without declaring war, Napoleon attacked Russia. His campaign, in which, by the way, 200,000 Germans took part along with the French, ended ingloriously. During this period, many Prussian officers arrived in Russia who did not want to cooperate with Napoleon. Among them was Carl von Clausewitz. With their participation, a volunteer German-Russian legion was organized, which, together with the Russian army, took part in the battles against the French. The Prussian statesman Karl Stein, known for his commitment to national German unity under the auspices of Prussia, also arrived in Moscow. He repeatedly met with Alexander I, who since 1804 advocated the creation of a German confederation without the participation of Austria. One of Stein's collaborators in Russia was the popular German poet Ernst Moritz Arndt. In Prussia itself, the War Minister Gerhard David Scharnhorst was an ardent supporter of the creation of a Russian-Prussian alliance against Napoleon.

In the eyes of the Germans, France was an adversary and an occupying power. Therefore, the struggle against Napoleon developed into a broad national movement, which resulted in wars of liberation. Prussia set the tone for them. On February 8, 1813, Friedrich Wilhelm III concluded a Prussian-Russian alliance in Kalisz. He turned to his people only in March, when they had already risen against the French, and the Cossacks, under the command of Colonel Tettenborn, born in Baden, liberated Hamburg. In October 1813, after the accession to the Prussian-Austrian-Russian alliance of Bavaria and other German states, the Confederation of the Rhine ceased to exist. On October 18, the allies defeated Napoleon in the "Battle of the Nations" near Leipzig and forced him to leave Germany. On March 31, 1814, the Russian Tsar and the Prussian King entered Paris as winners. Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba.

At the Peace Congress of Vienna (1814 - 1815), Prussia regained Danzig, Torun and Posen and received about half of Saxony, Westphalia and the Rhine Province. The Congress of Vienna restored the balance in Europe of the five great powers - Russia, England, France, Austria and Prussia (the so-called "pentarchy"), and the borders in Eastern Europe, determined at the congress, remained unchanged for a hundred years.

The hopes of the German patriots for the creation of a united German state, however, did not come true. Instead, at the Congress of Vienna on June 8, 1815, a confederation was established - the German Confederation, in which Austria was given the chairmanship. It was an "international legal union" of 39 sovereign German state entities (Vienna Final Act of July 8, 1820). The only joint body was the Federal Assembly (Union Sejm) - not an elected parliament, but a congress of plenipotentiary ambassadors - representatives of the member states of the union. It met in Frankfurt am Main and later became known as the "Bundestag". The union was viable only if the two major powers, Austria and Prussia, unanimously agreed. In subsequent decades, the union saw its main task in curbing any aspirations for unity and freedom. The press was subjected to the most severe censorship, universities were under control, political activity was almost impossible.

The union was not strong due to friction between Prussia and Austria, and at the same time, in the field of economy, a merger of individual German states was taking place. The abolition of the so-called "continental barrier" announced by Napoleon and directed against the import of English goods increased competition between the German states and England. However, the internal duty system hindered the development of the market within Germany. This led to the creation in 1834 of the German Customs Union, which included almost all German states except Austria. In fact, the formation of a customs union was the first real step towards creating a single state in the "Little German version" (excluding Austria).

The February Revolution of 1848 in France quickly spread to Germany. In March, popular unrest swept through all German territories, which forced the frightened German rulers to make some concessions to the population. On May 18, the National Assembly was convened in Frankfurt am Main, whose decisions, as a result of fundamental disagreements on the future arrangement of Germany, did not receive practical resolution. On March 28, 1849, the National Assembly approved the "imperial constitution", which was a significant step forward in the development of democracy and government. The 28 member states of the German Confederation recognized the constitution. However, the refusal of the Prussian king to accept the crown from the hands of the people doomed the attempt to create a unified German state to failure.

The fifties of the XIX century are characterized by a rapid economic recovery in Germany, the basis of which was the industrial revolution and industrialization. The leading position in the economic plan was occupied by Prussia. On September 24, 1862, Wilhelm I appointed the Prussian envoy in Paris, 47-year-old Otto von Schoenhausen Bismarck (1815-1898), as Prime Minister of Prussia, who resolutely undertook to strengthen the foreign policy positions of the Prussian state. Bismarck's policy was largely facilitated by the mood that prevailed in a fragmented Germany. The people did not stop calling for the unification of all German states into a new unified empire. These ideas matured in the first half of the century among academic youth, inspired by the French Enlightenment. The unification movement could not be suppressed, despite the fact that many members of the progressive German students were declared demagogues and traitors. But if the democrats advocated the unification of Germany "from below" through the free democratic will of the people, then Bismarck wanted to achieve unification under the auspices of Prussia. In his opinion, the unification should have taken place "from above" through the adoption of appropriate decisions by the sovereign kings and princes. Austria stood in the way of achieving this goal. Therefore, Bismarck consistently carried out a plan to exclude Austria from the list of contenders for the role of leader in German unification.

The Second German Empire arose as a result of three wars led by Prussia, according to Bismarck, "with iron and blood." The first victorious war in alliance with Austria was fought in 1864 against Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein. Its result was the annexation of the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg in favor of a joint Prussian-Austrian possession (condominium), which, however, did not suit Prussia in any way. In 1865, the possessions were divided: Prussia received Schleswig in full control, Austria - Holstein. A dispute over the sole control of both territories led in 1866 to a war between Austria and Prussia, which the latter won. Austria was forced to leave the German Confederation, leaving Prussia to lead the unifying Germany.

The result of the war was the dissolution of the German and the formation of the ^ North German Union. According to the constitution of the North German Confederation, adopted in 1867, the federation united 22 German states, as well as the free cities of Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck, that is, countries located north of the Main River. Austria's allies - Hanover, Kurgessen, Nassau and Frankfurt am Main - were simply annexed by Prussia. The King of Prussia became hereditary president of the union, and Bismarck received the post of chancellor. A secret defensive and offensive agreement was concluded with the South German states.

The successes of Prussia in the war against Austria caused a rise in anti-Prussian sentiment in France and intensified Franco-Prussian differences, primarily on territorial issues. In July 1870, the Franco-Prussian war began, the reason for which was a diplomatic conflict over the Spanish succession, when Wilhelm I, while in Bad Ems, refused to give the French ambassador Benedetti firm guarantees that the Hohenzollern family would never claim the Spanish crown. By telegraph, he reported the circumstances of the case to Bismarck and instructed "in a suitable form" to inform the press about this. The chancellor shortened and edited the document, which went down in history under the name "Emsky dispatch", and sent it to the press. The publication of the dispatch exposed Paris to public ridicule and radically changed the psychological situation in Germany. The Germans perceived the harassment of France not as a showdown between the ruling dynasties, but as a problem of infringement of the all-German national dignity. In turn, the offended French government declared war on Prussia on July 19.

This war is 1870-1871. Thanks to the allied treaties that came into force, Prussia with the South German states turned into a Franco-German one. Just a few months after France declared war, she was brought to her knees. On January 28, 1871, an armistice was concluded, on February 26, a preliminary peace treaty, and on May 10, a final peace treaty was signed in Frankfurt. France had to give up Alsace and Lorraine and pay reparations in the amount of 5 billion francs.

In a patriotic impulse caused by the war, the South German states joined the North German Confederation, forming the second German Empire. On January 18, 1871, even before the capture of Paris by the Germans, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles.

^ "The Age of Bismarck"

One of the first acts of the new state was the adoption of the imperial constitution, which followed on April 16, 1871. In general, the constitution has undergone minor changes compared to the constitution of the North German Confederation, with the exception of taking into account the special rights of the South German states. The leading role of Prussia in the "alliance of German princes" remained undeniable. The Emperor, also known as the King of Prussia, presided over the Bundesrat, appointed and dismissed the Chancellor of the Reich. Universal (male) suffrage was introduced, which allowed the people to elect a parliament - the Reichstag.

The first years of the existence of the new German empire were characterized by an unprecedented rise in industrial development, which was primarily due to the injection of 5 billion francs into the German economy as compensation from France for the defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. Economic success was also facilitated by the expansion of the economic space through the acquisition of new territories. The formation and expansion of the banking system and trade, the laying of railways, housing and industrial construction were proceeding at a powerful pace. Germany's share of world trade rose by 214% between 1887 and 1914, thus placing the country in the lead. Not only France, but the “ruler of the seas” Great Britain itself turned out to be outsiders. Parliamentarism and the party system began to develop, the foundations of state social policy were laid. All these favorable conditions contributed to sustainable demographic growth. If in 1870 the population of Germany was 40 million people, then in 1914 it approached the mark of 68 million people1.

The formation of the German Empire made fundamental adjustments to the balance of power in Europe. Instead of Prussia, the most economically powerful and militarily strongest continental power appeared on the European map, which was opposed by England, France, Russia and Austria-Hungary. Events of 1970 - 1871 Benjamin Disraeli, the leader of the Conservative opposition in the House of Commons of the British Parliament, was one of the first to give an assessment. “This war means the German Revolution, a political event more significant than the French Revolution of the last century. I don't want to say that this is a social event of greater or equal importance... But what happened today? The balance of power is completely destroyed; and the country that has suffered the most from this, and that will most feel this great change, is England.

After 1871, an "armed peace" was established in Europe. According to former US Secretary of State H. Kissinger, in the 19th century Bismarck's Germany dismantled the "European concert", turning European diplomacy into a cold-blooded game of power politics2. For almost two decades, Bismarck skillfully manipulated the commitments and interests of the European powers in order to preserve peace in Europe and strengthen the position of the young German Empire, guided by the principles of "Realpolitik" (Realpolitik). In his understanding, "realpolitik" meant the rejection of sentiment and legitimacy and the elevation to the absolute of a sober calculation of forces. It is he who owns the famous phrase that "politics is the art of the possible, the science of the relative."

Bismarck served as Reich Chancellor for 19 years. Consistently pursuing an allied policy, he tried to stabilize the position of the empire within the framework of a new balance of power on the European continent. On the one hand, he tried, and not without success, to isolate France, which could not accept defeat in the war and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. On the other hand, he continued to develop friendly relations with Russia, concluding a secret treaty with her in 1887, and established allied relations with Prussia's eternal rival, Austria-Hungary. Under Bismarck, German colonial expansion began in Africa and the Marshall Islands in the Pacific.

Under him, the history of the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs or, literally, “foreign policy department”, which appeared on January 1, 1870, began as a result of the transformation of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Prussia. The chancellor of the North German Confederation, Otto von Bismarck, by his decree of January 8, 1870, gave the name to the new state institution, apparently by analogy with the British Foreign Office, in order to emphasize that this is a structure directly subordinate to the head of the executive branch. The only minister of this federal state was the Federal Chancellor, and since 1871 the Reich Chancellor, who also held the post of Prime Minister of Prussia and Minister of Foreign Affairs of the country. This person from 1862 to 1890 was Bismarck. At the same time, he was chairman of the Bundesrat of the Union, and later of the German Empire.

Bismarck saw his main task in isolating France, depriving her of the opportunity to find allies. At the same time, he understood that by the very fact of its existence, the German Empire with a powerful Prussian military machine posed a threat to all its neighbors. It is no coincidence that he was haunted by the "nightmare of coalitions" ("cauchemar des coalitions") against Germany, which her rivals France, Austria, Great Britain and Russia could go for. Therefore, the chancellor wanted to build friendly relations with both Austria-Hungary and Russia, relying on the rapprochement of the three emperors and the conclusion of a triple union between them. He was well aware that the course towards confrontation with St. Petersburg would inevitably lead to Franco-Russian rapprochement, which threatened the Germans with a war on two fronts. At the same time, he took into account Austria, which did not forget the defeat of the Prussians in the war of 1866 and, under certain circumstances, could, following the example of France, embark on the path of revenge.

In the early 70s, circumstances were favorable for the implementation of the chancellor's ideas. The Anglo-Austrian rapprochement based on the desire to oppose Russia in the Balkans did not take place due to the unwillingness of London to take on any allied obligations. Russia, on the other hand, was frightened by the prospect of creating an Austro-German alliance, and it was ready for a dialogue with both powers, so as not to be left alone when playing European poker. Bismarck brilliantly played his part and ensured that in September 1872 the long-awaited meeting of the three emperors took place in Berlin. In itself, it was more symbolic. Only the heads of the foreign affairs departments had a substantive conversation, and they agreed to give Germany the function of an arbitrator in the event of an aggravation of relations between Vienna and St. Petersburg.

At the beginning of 1873, on the initiative of the Russian field marshal Count Berg, viceroy of the Kingdom of Poland, a draft of a defensive military convention between Russia and Germany arose. Bismarck approved the idea of ​​this treaty, emphasizing that it "will not be valid unless Austria joins it"3. In early May 1873, Wilhelm I arrived in St. Petersburg, accompanied by Bismarck and Moltke, where the signing of the Russian-German military convention took place. Article 1 of the treaty stated: "If any European power attacked one of the two empires, then the latter would receive assistance in the shortest possible time in the form of an army of two hundred thousand combat-ready troops." The convention stipulated the right of each party to terminate its operation after 2 years after one of the parties warned the other about it. The convention was signed by two field marshals - H.K. Moltke and F.F. Berg. On the same day, May 6, it was ratified by both monarchs4.

Fearing to be involved in a conflict with Great Britain, the Austrians refused to join the Russian-German military agreement, which O. Bismarck insisted on. In return, on June 6, they went to the signing in Schönbrunn near Vienna of non-binding agreements between the Russian and Austrian emperors on a kind of consultation in case of disagreements on specific issues. In the event of a threat of attack from a third power, both monarchs had to agree on a "joint line of conduct." On October 23, 1873, during his visit to Austria, the German Emperor Wilhelm I joined the Schönbrunn Agreement, which received the not entirely accurate name of the "Union of the Three Emperors".

In June 1877, Bismarck formulated in his “^ Kissinger Memorandum” the main postulate of German foreign policy, according to which it was necessary to ensure that all European powers, with the exception of France, were able to cooperate with the German Empire, and also to prevent the formation of coalitions, directed against her. To avoid this "cauchemar des coalitions", the empire tried to assume the role of "honest broker" in relations between the other powers. The modern German historian H. Schulze believes that the Berlin Congress in June 1878 became the culminating moment of this policy, at which “under the strong influence of the German Reich Chancellor, the situation in Europe was stabilized, and the danger of a new big European war for the possession of the Balkans was eliminated”6 . However, the statement about "stabilization" can be argued, if only because Bismarck did not manage to build a contractual framework for the system of checks and balances that he wanted to create. Naturally, each of the five leading players on the European field put their national-state interests above supranational harmony. In the Balkans, the interests of Russia and Austria-Hungary clashed, in the Mediterranean basin and in Central Asia, Great Britain and Russia.

At the end of the 70s, a cooling of German-Russian relations is planned. One of the reasons was the rapprochement between Berlin and Vienna and, as the Russian press emphasized, Bismarck's deliberately detached attitude towards Russia's interests during the Berlin Congress, which resolved territorial issues after the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. In particular, the Treaty of Berlin, which replaced the Treaty of San Stefano, forced Russia to refuse to transfer part of the possessions of the Ottoman Empire to Bulgaria. The second reason was economic.

Germany was one of the most important markets for Russian raw materials. In 1879, she absorbed 30% of Russian exports, ranking second after England. The world agrarian crisis, which began in the 1970s, extremely intensified the struggle for food and raw material markets. The Prussian Junkers persistently demanded that the German market be protected from foreign competition. Experiencing powerful pressure from him, the Reich Chancellor imposed an almost complete ban on the import of livestock from Russia. The reason for this was the plague, which was discovered in the Astrakhan province. This event severely hit the pockets of the Russian landlords and further intensified the anti-German campaign in the Slavophile Russian press, which, after the Berlin Congress, accused Bismarck of betraying Russia. The baton was picked up by the St. Petersburg newspaper Golos, associated with Chancellor Gorchakov. The German ambassador in St. Petersburg, General Schweinitz, wrote in this regard in his diary that “the measures against the Vetlyansk plague aroused [in Russia] more hatred than anything else”7.

The German chancellor did not remain in debt. Thus began the sensational "newspaper war" of the two chancellors throughout Europe.

The restriction on the import of livestock in Germany in 1879 was followed by the introduction of duties on bread, which hit Russian agriculture even more painfully than preventive veterinary measures. Relations between St. Petersburg and Berlin sharply deteriorated. This was evidenced by the famous "slap" of the Russian tsar to the German emperor, in other words, the letter of Alexander II, which he sent to Wilhelm on August 15. In his message, he complained about the little friendly behavior of Germany and, above all, Bismarck at the Berlin Congress. Reconciliation took place during a personal meeting on September 3-4 in Alexandrov, on Russian territory, near the border.

The Reich Chancellor, however, was not satisfied with the seemingly successful outcome of the case. He considered it necessary, just in case, to keep under steam a spare locomotive in the person of Austria-Hungary. And if in the 70s, in order to strengthen the unity of Germany, he relied on an alliance with Austria and Russia, then in the 80s the situation changed dramatically. G. Kissinger notes that “Germany has become too strong to be on the sidelines, because this could lead to the unification of all of Europe. She could no longer rely on the historical, almost reflex, support of Russia. Germany has become a giant in need of friends. Bismarck resolved this dilemma by reversing his previous approach to foreign policy. He could no longer influence the balance of power, having fewer obligations than his potential opponent ... Then he decided to establish relations with a larger number of countries than, respectively, any of the possible opponents. This gave him the opportunity to choose from a variety of allies, depending on the circumstances. Giving up the freedom of maneuver that characterized his diplomacy for twenty years, Bismarck began to create a system of alliances, strongly conceived, on the one hand, so that German potential opponents would not enter into alliances among themselves, and on the other hand, in order to keep under the control of the actions of the German partners. In each of the Bismarckian, sometimes rather contradictory, coalitions, Germany has always been closer to each individual partner than they are to each other individually; and therefore Bismarck always had the right to veto joint action, as well as the ability to act independently. During the decade he managed to conclude pacts with the opponents of his allies, so that he was in a position to ease tensions on all sides.

Bismarck began this new page in his policy in 1879 by concluding a secret alliance with Austria. Three considerations prompted him to approach Vienna. First, Bismarck did not rule out that the threat of an insurrectionary movement emanating from Herzegovina could grow into a pan-Slavist revolution in the Balkans and seriously undermine the position of Austria-Hungary. Secondly, the signing of the Russian-Austrian treaty on January 15, 1877 in Budapest testified to the fact that both eastern neighbors of Germany, building their foreign policy strategy, one way or another take into account the geopolitical position of the Reich and, under certain circumstances, can significantly contribute to it. isolation. And, finally, Bismarck was convinced that Russia would not risk breaking with Germany, in which she saw a strategic partner. In favor of such an optimistic forecast, both the impulses coming from the Danubian monarchy for rapprochement with the Reich, and its contradictions with Great Britain, which again made themselves felt during the “Eastern crisis” of 1875-1878, during which the interests of St. Petersburg and Vienna clashed, spoke in favor of such an optimistic forecast. , and at the Berlin Congress.

The certainty that Russia would once again strive for rapprochement with Germany, as well as the conviction that Austria would "succumb to hostile influences" if it did not find "support" in the person of Germany, and, moreover, would "contact" with England, dictated the actions of Bismarck and contrary to the will of the emperor, they spurred him to conclude the so-called “dual alliance” with the Danubian monarchy, which, in principle, was a logical continuation of the “crisis time policy”9. The Austro-German Union Treaty directed against Russia was signed on October 7, 1879 in the wording insisted on by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary, Count D. Andrassy (from Germany it was signed by Ambassador Prince Reis). Its first article specifically stated: “In the event that one of the two empires, contrary to the hopes and sincere wishes of both high contracting parties, was attacked by Russia, both high contracting parties are obliged to come to the aid of each other with the entirety of the armed forces of their empires and, accordingly, not make peace otherwise than jointly and by mutual agreement. In the event of an attack not by Russia, but by some other power, both sides promised each other only benevolent neutrality, unless Russia joins the aggressor. In the latter case, Article 1 would immediately enter into force, and each of the contracting powers would undertake to start hostilities on the side of its ally. The treaty was to remain secret; one of the motives for this was that Andrássy feared serious opposition in the Austrian parliament.

It is difficult to agree with the statement that the conclusion of the Austro-German alliance marked the beginning of the formation of those military coalitions that later clashed in the First World War, especially since it was followed by the resuscitation of the “Union of the Three Emperors”. Nevertheless, the general line to contain Russia from Berlin and Vienna in the southeast direction, or rather in the Balkans, was determined for the future. True, its implementation, not through an alliance, as the Reich Chancellor suggested, but through a forceful confrontation, which Wilhelm II staked on, followed after the resignation of Bismarck.

The reason for the convergence of the Austro-Russian positions was the change of cabinet in Great Britain. In April 1880, the government of Beaconsfield was replaced by the government of Gladstone, which, unlike its predecessor, took a course towards abandoning the Anglo-Turkish alliance for the sake of rapprochement with Russia. Vienna realized that it was no longer possible to count on the support of London in the "Turkish Gambit". Then, after the persistent exhortations of the Reich Chancellor, the Austrian hesitations came to an end. Actually, the Russian tsar, who was afraid of foreign policy isolation, decided to agree to the revival of the Austro-Russian-German union. The corresponding three-year treaty was signed on June 18, 1881, and also went down in history under the loud title "Union of the Three Emperors." However, unlike the 1873 treaty, which was purely a consultative pact, it was primarily a neutrality agreement.

As G. Kissinger emphasizes, the principles of realpolitik, devoid of any moral principles, were at the heart of the second "Union of the Three Emperors"11. The contracting parties mutually pledged to observe benevolent neutrality, should they find themselves in a state of war with another state. This meant that Russia took obligations to Germany not to interfere in the Franco-German war. In exchange, Germany and Austria guaranteed the same to Russia in the event of an Anglo-Russian war. The guarantee of neutrality also extended in the event of a war with Turkey, provided, however, that the aims and expected results of this war were agreed in advance. It was envisaged that none of the parties to the treaty would attempt to change the existing territorial position in the Balkans without prior agreement with the other two partners. In addition, Berlin and Vienna promised St. Petersburg that they would provide her with diplomatic support against the Porte if she retreated from the principle of closing the straits for the warships of all nations. This point was especially important for the Russian government, since it prevented the possibility of an Anglo-Turkish agreement and eliminated the danger of the appearance of the British fleet in the Black Sea.

By the 1881 treaty, Bismarck insured himself against a Franco-Russian alliance in exchange for his guarantees for Russia in the event of an Anglo-Russian war. The vulnerability of this diplomatic combination was that the agreement of the three emperors was valid until the Austro-Russian contradictions reappeared, softened after the end of the “Eastern crisis” of 1875-1878. In other words, the agreement of the three emperors was stable only insofar as the situation in the Mediterranean remained more or less calm. In 1884, the agreement was extended for three years, but after another Balkan war and the victory of the Bulgarians over the Serbs and, as a result, a sharp cooling of Austro-Russian relations, there could be no question of any extension of the agreement.

The following year, the Reich Chancellor masterfully played the "French card" and now enrolled the Italians in his camp. The fact is that they grappled to death with the French in North Africa, who in 1881, by hook or by crook, established a protectorate over Tunisia (Bardo Treaty). Weak in military and economic terms, Italy, which was in the backyard of "big diplomacy", the alliance with the European monarchical grandees was extremely beneficial both in terms of foreign and domestic policy, where the pressure of the Republicans was felt more and more tangibly.

The union treaty between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy was signed on May 20, 1882 and was called the ^ Triple Alliance. According to its provisions, two of its participants - Berlin and Vienna - promised Rome military support in the event of a French attack. Italy made a promise to remain neutral in relation to Austria-Hungary, the Russian-Austrian war began. The treaty existed in parallel with the Austro-German alliance of 1879 directed against Russia and the agreement of the three emperors of 1881. It is curious that the contractual base of the Triple Alliance was updated a total of four times and retained its legal force until the outbreak of the First World War. This was due to the need to codify the growing ambitions of Germany's partners and the divergence of geopolitical interests between Rome and Vienna.

Finally, in 1887, Bismarck managed to persuade Rome and Vienna to conclude the so-called Mediterranean Agreements with Great Britain, according to which the participating parties agreed to jointly preserve the status quo in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. The anti-Russian orientation of this secret document was obvious: the three states also pledged to oppose territorial annexation, occupation and the creation of protectorates. Germany, the only European power to be made aware of this, became a kind of informal member of the alliance. The Reich Chancellor believed that the rapprochement of Great Britain with Austria-Hungary and the simultaneous strengthening of the anti-Russian accents of London's foreign policy were in the German interests. What Bismarck could not have wanted was a war between Russia and Germany's closest ally, Austria-Hungary. But it was precisely this threat that grew as a result of the appearance of a rear cover for Vienna in the person of England thanks to the conclusion of the Mediterranean Pact.

Bismarck's last major initiative was the conclusion of the so-called "reinsurance treaty" between Germany and Russia, which was signed in Berlin by Count Pavel Shuvalov and the German chancellor on June 18, 1887. Back in April, the tsar agreed to resume negotiations with

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Lesson plan

1. German Confederation
2. Revolution of 1848

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German Confederation

• 1814 formation of the German Union (34 kingdoms, principalities, duchies and 4 free cities, led by Austria.
• The goal is to preserve the old order.

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Economic development of Germany

• In the 50s. industrial production and length of railways have doubled in 10 years
• By 1860, Germany took 3rd place in world industrial production
• The number of handicraft and manufacturing workers in Prussia and other 5 large German states was 2 million, and factory workers - 1.5 million people
• Agriculture developed along the "Prussian path"

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Reasons for slow economic development:

• Maintaining fragmentation
• Preservation of large landed estates
• Preservation of the privileges of the nobility
• Coexistence of feudal and capitalist exploitation

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• 1834 Establishment of the Customs Union of 18 states.
• The formation of economic unity began while maintaining state fragmentation.

Slide 7

Revolution of 1848

The tasks of Germany in the political and economic field:

• Eliminate the fragmentation of the country
• Eliminate absolute monarchies
• Eliminate feudal vestiges

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• Read pages 123-125 and write down the causes of the revolution and the main events, results.
• The task takes 12-15 minutes.

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The unification of Germany "with iron and blood"

• 1861 Wilhelm I became King of Prussia: increase in the regular army, introduction of a three-year military service

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• September 1862 Otto von Bismarck takes over as Chancellor of Prussia
• "The strong one is always right!"

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• Bismarck dissolved parliament and began preparations for a war of unification
• 1864 he intervened in the struggle for the "Danish inheritance", in alliance with Austria, defeated the Danes and captured Schleswig and Holstein
• The Austrians got nothing, and relations between the allies escalated

History Lesson Summary

4 "b" class

Teacher: Anufrieva E.V.

Methodist: Nikolaeva A.N.

Student: 741 groups, Gorbunova Elena Vladislavovna

Lesson topic: "Towards Unity"

Equipment: textbook, workbook, presentation, cards for independent work with assignments

The purpose and objectives of the lesson:

Subject:

To form ideas about the events of the Time of Troubles in the life of the country, about the struggle for independence and unity of the Fatherland;

Introduce the role of Dmitry Pozharsky and Kozma Minin in the liberation of Russia from the invaders;

Tell about the Volga cities that united to create a people's militia.

Metasubject:

Regulatory:

- Determine the topic of the lesson, set a goal, keep it throughout the lesson, perform learning activities in a practical and mental form, record in a dialogue with the teacher at the end of the lesson, satisfaction / dissatisfaction with their work in the lesson;

Predict the result of solving a practical educational problem, evaluate it according to criteria;

Communicative:

Use simple speech means, engage in dialogue with the teacher, classmates, exercise mutual control and mutual assistance;

Respect another point of view;

Personal:

Understand the importance of unity in the interests of citizens to preserve the independence of the country;

Recognize the importance of the best human qualities, manifested in specific deeds and actions of people living at turning points in the history of the country

During the classes

Stageslesson

Teacher activity

Student activities

Organizing time

Hello guys! My name is Elena Vladislavovna, today I will give you a history lesson. Sit down please!

take up space

Knowledge update

Test

Conversation

Student story

Conversation

We will start the lesson by reviewing the topic we have already studied. Who will tell you what topic you studied in the last lesson?

4 people on this topic will complete a test on their own. Having received the leaflets, sign them, in the tasks you need to choose the correct answer. Working time (5 min) Getting to work

Test

1) Which tsar ordered the establishment of a printing house in Moscow?

A) Ivan ӀӀӀ

B) Ivan Kalita

C) Yaroslav the Wise

D) Ivan the Terrible

2) What was the name of the master who created the first printing house in Moscow?

A) Kirill

B) Methodius

B) Ivan Fedorov

D) monk Nestor

3) What book did Ivan Fedorov create for teaching literacy?

A) "The Tale of Bygone Years"

B) "The Tale of Igor's Campaign"

B) an apostle

D) the first Russian primer

4) Where is the monument to Ivan Fedorov erected?

A) in Kyiv

B) in Moscow

B) in Yaroslavl

D) in Vladimir

5) In what year was the first printed book published in Russia?

A) 1480 g

B) 1564

B) 1612

D) 1500 g

Answers: 1-d, 2-c, 3-d, 4-b, 5-b

While the guys complete the tasks, we will talk with you.

What kind of people can be called righteous? (these are believers who observe all religious rules, leading a "correct" life).

(on date screen)

Who can say what these dates mean: January 22, July 16, October 18?

(days of memory of the holy Metropolitan Philip)

Tell us who was this Metropolitan Philip and why is he still in the memory of the people? (originally from the noble boyar family of the Kolychevs, in his youth he went north in simple clothes, served with a shepherd for a year. Then he became a monk of the Solovetsky Monastery, was elected its abbot, showed himself to be an intelligent owner. He erected stone buildings instead of wooden ones. He connected the lakes with canals. Water gave water to people, entered the laundry, turned millstones in a mill, delivered logs to saws, which were also driven by water.First of all, he was a spiritual mentor for all of Russia.When he became a metropolitan in Moscow, he was not afraid to speak out against the cruelty of Tsar Ivan the Terrible. His courage and truthfulness of the saint still remain in the memory of the people)

What kind of people could be called explorers? (these are people who open the world, she paved the way where no human has gone before)

Forever left his name on the map of Russia, a native of the land of Veliky Ustyug, Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev, how did he call this the extreme point of the Chukotka Peninsula?

(Big Stone Nose) What was this place? (meeting point of two oceans)

Who was S.I. Dezhnev? (an outstanding Russian navigator, explorer-traveler, explorer of Siberia, fur trader, in 1648 he was the first to pass the Bering Strait separating America from Asia)

What river did he discover when he passed the whole strait? (Anadyr)

The ascetic isHuman, from religious motives exposing myself deprivation.

Now we have remembered the explorers, the righteous and ascetics.

The guys who completed the test hand over the sheets, do not forget to sign them.

Ascetics of Russia and explorers

4 students complete a test on a piece of paper

These are believers who observe all religious rules, leading a “correct” life.

Memorial Day of Saint Metropolitan Philip

The Story of Metropolitan Philip

These are the people who discover the world, she paved the way where no human has gone before.

Big stone nose

The meeting point of two oceans

Anadyr

Determining the topic of the lesson

Conversation

Working with key words

Conversation

Why do you think the Kyiv, Vladimir and Moscow grand dukes always tried to strengthen the border of Russia to the west? (There was a threat from the west,this came from the fact that Europe in all centuries was quite densely populated, and therefore periodically began to make plans to expand its territories at the expense of Russian lands)

Look at the screen, here you see the key words to the topic of today's lesson, read them. (distemper, militia, citizen, siege)

Pick up the same-root words for the word "distemper" (vague, muddy, muddy, whirlpool)

The events that we will talk about today in the lesson are called Time of Troubles. What do you think this means?

Look at the screen, here is the meaning of the word "distemper" from the explanatory dictionary. Let's read them. (1. Mutiny, popular unrest. 2. Discord, quarrels, disorder)

Both characterize the period in the history of our country.

How do you understand the word "militia"?

Look at the screen, read the meaning from the explanatory dictionary. (The army assembled to help the regular army by voluntarily attracting the broad masses of the people)

How can this relate to the events of the Time of Troubles? (not only the tsarist troops, but also ordinary people stood up to defend the country)

What kind of person can be called a citizen of his country? (a person who observes the laws of the country, works for its good)

What is a siege?

In those days, many of the Volga cities of Russia withstood the siege.

Guys, who can already name the topic of our lesson, what will we talk about today at the lesson?

The theme of our lesson is "On the Path to Unity"

There was a threat from the westthis came from the fact that Europe in all centuries was quite densely populated, and therefore periodically began to make plans to expand its territories at the expense of Russian lands

vague, muddy, muddy, whirlpool

Word reading

Reading the meaning of the word "militia"

Not only the tsarist troops, but also ordinary people stood up to defend the country

A person who observes the laws of the country, works for its good

Determining the topic of the lesson

Setting goals and objectives of the lesson

Who can formulate the purpose of our lesson?

Today in the lesson we will talk about troubled times in the life of the country, about the struggle for independence and unity of the Fatherland and get acquainted with the historical figures Dmitry Pozharsky and Kozma Minin, who played a big role in the liberation of Russia from the invaders.

Formulate the purpose of the lesson

Exploring a new lesson topic

Teacher's story

Working with the map

Teacher's story

Working with illustrations

Conversation

Student's story

Conversation

Student's story

Conversation

Teacher's story

Student's story

Conversation

Demonstration + teacher's story

Conversation

Student's story

Conversation

Work with the textbook + conversation

The Time of Troubles was called the time in Russia at the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century. The country was in chaos and discord. And again, thanks to the wisdom and love for the Motherland of our compatriots, the country coped with the misfortunes that befell it.

(Teacher's story, illustrations of cities, monuments, icons on the screen)

At the beginning of the 17th century, internecine wars ravaged the country. Under these conditions, she became easy prey for enemies. The main border fortresses of Smolensk and Veliky Novgorod were captured. Even in the capital there was a Polish garrison. Russia was threatened with the loss of independence.

In 1598 the tsar died, and with his death the Rurik dynasty crossed. Under mysterious circumstances in Uglich (display on city map ) died his half-brother Tsarevich Dmitry. In this city, a temple was erected in memory of this tragic event. (you see it on the screen ) There were no direct heirs to the throne. And so a fierce struggle for power began in Russia. She split the Boyar Duma, and plunged the country into an endless leapfrog of changing kings, internecine wars.

In Western Europe, it was believed that Russia would not be able to rise and would not regain its former power. However, the mortal danger united all the patriotic forces of the country. Overcoming the turmoil showed that the Russian spirit, pride, cannot be broken. In the struggle for liberation, the best features of the Russian people were manifested: steadfastness, courage, loyalty to the motherland, self-sacrifice.

The chronicle of the Time of Troubles forever left in the people's memory the names of the participants in the people's liberation struggle: (portraits on screen ) Governor Skopin-Shuisky and Shein, Patriarch Germogen, nobleman Lyapunov, peasant Ivan Susanin, heroes of the liberation movement Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky.

Russian people began to converge in peace and talk about how to stand up against the Poles and Lithuania with the whole earth and drive them out.

Generalization: - Why did a fierce struggle for power begin in Russia? (The king died, his brother died under mysterious circumstances, there were no more direct heirs to the throne)

What are the best traits shown by the Russian people for the liberation of Russia? (fortitude, courage, loyalty to the motherland, self-sacrifice)

Name the participants in the national liberation struggle? (voivode Skopin-Shuisky and Shein, Patriarch Germogen, nobleman Lyapunov, peasant Ivan Susanin, heroes of the liberation movement Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky)

How this uprising went will tell us (Name)

Message: ( on-screen portraits, illustrations )

The uprising began in Nizhny Novgorod. In October 1611, a letter arrived there from the Trinity Monastery; senior people gathered for advice. The zemstvo elder, merchant Kozma Minin, an honest, reasonable man with a pure soul, also came to the council. He passionately loved his native land and fought hard for it. At the council, he said: “Saint Sergius appeared to me in a dream and ordered me to wake those who were asleep; read the letter in the assembly, and there let it be what God pleases. The council agreed with Minin's speech. The next day, the big cathedral bell rang, it was a weekday, the people were alarmed and went to the cathedral with different thoughts, some were waiting for good news, some were afraid of bad news. The archpriest went out before the people and read the Trinity letter. Then Minin said, “If we really want to save the Muscovite state, then we will not regret anything; We will sell our yards, we will lay down our wives and children, and we will beat with our foreheads who would stand up for the faith and be our leader. Minin said that there is no better governor than Prince Dmitry Pozharsky.

Generalization: Who is Kozma Minin? (Zemsky headman, an honest, reasonable man, with a pure soul)

What did Kozma Minin say after the words of Protopop? (If we really want to save the Muscovite state, then we will not regret anything; we will sell the yards, we will lay down our wives and children and we will beat with our foreheads who would stand up for the faith and be our boss)

Who did he propose to take the place of governor? (Dmitry Pozharsky)

And who was this Dmitry Pozharsky will tell us (name)

Message: ( on-screen portrait and illustration )

Prince Pozharsky lived at that time in his estate and was treated for wounds that he received in Moscow. He was a skilled governor, a reliable and honest man. There was neither pride nor arrogance in him; he knew how to get along with people and did not boast of his merits to anyone. The prince gladly undertook to recruit an army and lead it to Moscow.

Generalization: -What was the governor Dmitry Pozharsky?

The news of these events quickly spread throughout the Russian land, military people began to come to the city in droves, many sent money. For almost a year they were preparing, gathering forces, and in July 1612 the militia of Minin and Pozharsky set out on a campaign.

The guerrilla movement provided great support to the militias. The image of the peasant Ivan Susanin, (on-screen portrait ) who led the enemies into an impenetrable swamp, sacrificing his life, embodying the features of many heroes whose names remained unknown.

Where was this militia gathering place and how it all ended will tell us (name)

Message : ( on screen illustration )

The city of Yaroslavl became the gathering place for the militia. Militia troops from Vladimir and Kostroma.

The Polish garrison settled in the Kremlin and held it for about two months. But in the end, hunger forced the enemies to leave the Kremlin. The militia of Minin and Pozharsky liberated Moscow from enemies. Soon the whole Russian land was cleared of the invaders. So the Russian people saved the country from the enemy.

Generalization:

What city became the place of militia? (Yaroslavl)

Where did the Polish garrison settle down and how long did it hold it? (In the Kremlin, 2 months)

What made them come out of there? (hunger)

Please look at the monumenton screen illustration ) Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, this monument is located in Nizhny Novgorod, the second people's militia was created at this place. The words are inscribed on the monument: "Grateful Russia to Citizen Minin and Prince Pozharsky"

Guys, what kind of holiday is celebrated on November 4th? (National Unity Day) Do you think it is connected with the names of Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky? (Yes)

Will tell us about this holidays (NAME)

Message : This holiday is one of the youngest state Russian holidays, although it has a long history. It is associated with the names of the glorious patriots of Russia - Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky. During the years of Soviet power, their feat was undeservedly forgotten. And in November, November 7 became a public holiday in memory of the revolutionary upheaval in the country, when the Bolshevik Party came to power. Later this holiday was called the Day of Accord and Reconciliation. And in 2005, Justice was restored, and now the day of the liberation of Moscow from the Polish invaders is considered a public holiday in Russia (Foreign invaders, one who invades sovereign territory) in 1612 - November 4th.

Generalization : - What kind of holiday is celebrated on November 4? (Day of national unity)

In memory of what victory was the Day of National Unity established?

(the day of the liberation of Moscow from the Poles)

Please open page 40 of the textbook. Next to the title of the topic of the lesson is a bas-relief fragment of an obelisk installed in the Kremlin of Nizhny Novgorod in memory of the feat of Minin and Pozharsky.

What do you see on this obelisk?

Two angels solemnly lay laurel wreaths of victory on the head of the governor and his assistant.

What do you think the people wanted to show with this obelisk?

So the people appreciated the great role of these patriots in the liberation of Russia from the invaders.

Listening to teacher's story, viewing illustration

Consider cities, illustrations

Looking at portraits

- The king died, his brother died under mysterious circumstances, there were no more direct heirs to the throne

Fortitude, courage, loyalty to the motherland, self-sacrifice

Happen classmate's story, view portraits, illustrations

Zemsky headman, an honest, reasonable man, with a pure soul

D. Pozharsky

Listen to a classmate, look at portraits and illustrations

Listen to teachers, look at portraits

Listen to a classmate

Yaroslavl

In the Kremlin, 2 months

Hunger

Examine the monument

National Unity Day

Listen to a classmate

National Unity Day

Day of the liberation of Moscow from the Poles

Working with the textbook

Two angels solemnly lay laurel wreaths of victory on the head of the governor and his assistant.

Consolidation of the studied material

Open the slave. notebook on page 23 No. 3.

Read the task. Complete the task yourself. Then we will check if you have correctly connected the cities and photos with lines.

Check: The student names the city and names the photo that matches it, why.

Completion of task number 3 in R.T. on one's own

Summing up the lesson

Conversation

Homework

Why is the throne empty? (Tsar Fedor had no children, his younger brother died)

What other trouble has befallen Russia? (hunger)

Who captured the Russian cities? (Poles, Swedes)

Who urged the Russian people to stand up for their native land? (Kozma Minin)

Where did it happen? (In Nizhniy Novgorod)

Which cities sent volunteer troops? (Kostroma, Yaroslavl, Vladimir)

What was created to fight the enemies? (Civil uprising)

Who made the first contribution to the creation of the army, called on fellow citizens "to spare no good" in defense of the Fatherland? (Kozma Minin)

Who was invited to lead the people's militia? (Prince Dmitry Pozharsky)

With what army did the battle take place near Moscow? (With Polish)

How did the Russian people thank their patriots? (Two centuries later, a monument was erected on Red Square in Moscow)

Tsar Fedor had no children, his younger brother died

Hunger

Poles, Swedes

Kozma Minin

Nizhny Novgorod

Kostroma, Yaroslavl, Vladimir

Civil uprising

Kozma Minin

D. Pozharsky

with Polish

Two centuries later, a monument was erected on Red Square in Moscow

Write down homework

Teacher:_____________

Methodist:____________

material preview

LESSON SUMMARY ON GENERAL HISTORY

Theme of the lesson: "Germany on the way to unity."

Lesson Objectives:

Describe the process of German unification.

Show the difference between the ways of German unification "from below" and "from above".

Consider the features of Bismarck's policy.

Continue developing the ability to independently work with the text of the textbook as a source of knowledge, highlight the main thing, analyze documents, use previously acquired knowledge, compare, evaluate historical phenomena, make and listen to messages, and solve cognitive tasks.

Continue developing the ability to work with a historical map and caricature.

Basic concepts of the lesson

• North German Confederation

  Ways of joining "from above" and "from below"

Lesson equipment

textbook Yudovskaya A.Ya., Baranov P.A., Vanyushkina L.M. " New story 1800-1913 "Grade 8 (M.," Enlightenment ")

Yudovskaya A.Ya., Vanyushkina L.M. New History Workbook

maps: "Europe in 1815", "Unification of Germany"

documents: "The German economist F. List on the fragmentation of Germany", "From the Treaty on the Customs Union (1833)", Bismarck on the unification of Germany "with iron and blood"

textbook illustrations

multimedia presentation

Video "The Road to German Reunification"

Lesson plan

Checking homework.

Learning new material:

German Confederation

The main question in the life of the Germans in the XIX century.

Revolution in Germany 1848

Beginning of German unification.

Setting homework.

During the classes

Checking homework.

Complete test tasks according to the options on the topic: "France: the Revolution of 1848 and the Second Empire."

2. Learning new material.

German Confederation

Question to the class (conversation)

Working with the map

"Europe in 1815"

Remember what became the political structure of Germany on the decisions of the Congress of Vienna? (instead of the Holy Roman Empire, the German Union of 39 states was created)

Which states were the largest in this union? (Austria and Prussia)

Teacher's story

The German Confederation did not aim at either economic or political unification of the German people, but was a means to preserve the old order. In addition, the Union could not become strong: its strongest members were Austria and Prussia, competing with each other for leadership in the Union. In other words, Germany remained a fragmented country.

Question to the class (conversation)

Think what the main political task might have been before the German people in the middle of the nineteenth century. ? (The German people saw the main goal in the unification of the country)

Let's see how this problem was solved in the German states.

Students write down the topic of the lesson.

Statement of the problem task

How and why did German unification begin? What role did Bimark play in this process?

The question of the unification of the country is the main question in the life of the Germans in the 19th century.

Teacher's story

In the first half of the XIX century. Germany remained an agricultural country. Many cities bore the imprint of the Middle Ages - life flowed slowly. And the population rarely exceeded 4-5 thousand inhabitants. However, the reforms carried out by Napoleon I. did not go unnoticed, and time took its toll. Capitalist methods of managing the economy are being introduced into Agriculture, and in industry.

What obstacles lay in the way of the development of the industrial society in Germany and what measures were taken to eliminate them in the field of economic development?

Working with documents (see A.Ya. Yudovskaya, L.M. Vanyushkina Lesson developments for the textbook "New History", 8th grade, p.

Group I: "German economist F. List on the fragmentation of Germany"

Question for the document: think about how the fragmentation of Germany influenced the formation of an industrial society. Justify your point of view.

II group: "From the agreement on the Customs Union (1833)"

Question to the document: how did the creation of the Customs Union influence the process of modernization in Germany? Were these conditions sufficient for the rapid development of an industrial society in it?

Conclusions: 1. The fragmentation of Germany was a serious obstacle to the further development of an industrial society.

In 1834, on the initiative of Prussia, the German Customs Union was created, uniting 18 states.

2. The creation of the Customs Union had great importance for the economic unification of the German states: barriers were destroyed on the roads of Northern Germany, all customs restrictions on trade were removed.

Thus, the creation of the Customs Union contributed to the economic unification of Germany and the further development of an industrial society.

Teacher's story

The development of an industrial society is always accompanied by the growth of national consciousness. The idea of ​​creating a united German state became more and more popular, and the German intelligentsia played a significant role in its development.

All of you have been familiar with the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm since childhood. Both brothers, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, were the founders of the cultural and political movement for the unification of Germany. As specialists in folklore and connoisseurs of oral folk art, they collected old folk tales and legends from the villages of Germany. Their "Children's and Family Tales", published between 1812 and 1815, was a great success, because expressed the awakening national identity. Their works quickly sold out throughout the country. Claiming that the soul of the people is revealed in their fairy tales, they rallied the Germans around their language.

The liberal movement expanded. The German liberal bourgeoisie demanded the convocation of an all-German class representation, the strengthening and expansion of the Customs Union.

Thus, the question of the unification of the country became the main thing in the life of the Germans.

Revolution in Germany 1848

Nevertheless, for a full-fledged unification, decisive steps had to be taken. Against this background, the revolutionary events of 1848 developed.

Question to the class (conversation)

What do you think was the main task of the revolution of 1848? (Unification of the country)

Of no small importance was the problem - which way this process would go, how the unification of Germany would take place "from above" or "from below".

How did the unification of Germany take place? Let's compare two possible ways of German unification.

Table layout:

Questions for comparison

Union "from below"

Association "from above"

Under whose direction

The path of unification "from below" involved the overthrow of traditional dynasties and the formation of a democratic republic.

The path of unification "from above" should be through the concentration of power by one of the largest states - Prussia or Austria - while the landowners retain land and power.

Working with the textbook (commented reading)

The text of the textbook. 123-125

Questions to the text:

Why did the revolution start in Berlin in 1848?

What social strata took the most active part in the revolution? (Under whose leadership was the unification of Germany "from below" to take place?)

How did they expect to carry out the unification of Germany?

What state system did they aspire to establish after unification?

Work in a notebook

Filling in the 2nd column of the table.

Questions for comparison

Union "from below"

Association "from above"

Under whose direction

How was the merger

People's Revolution

State system, possible after unification

Thus, the revolution in Germany ended in defeat, it did not solve the main task - national unification.

Beginning of German unification.

Teacher's story

The question of the unification of the country was the main one in the 60s. After the defeat of the revolution, the path of unification "from above" becomes real, in which the Prussian monarchy played the leading role, relying on the Prussian landowners (junkers) and the big German bourgeoisie.

Question to the class (conversation)

Think, under whose leadership should the unification "from above" take place?

Teacher's story

At this time, new politicians came to control Prussia - Wilhelm I and Otto von Bismarck.

In 1861, King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia died. His reign did not live up to the expectations of the Germans - it was not possible to create a single state. Therefore, the Junkers and the bourgeoisie turned their eyes hopefully to the new king. He was expected to resolve the issue of unification of the country.

Writing on the board and in a notebook

1861 -1888 - reign of William I.

By this time, William I was already 60 years old. Contemporaries spoke of him as a person for whom the interests of Prussia are in the foreground. Putting the greatness of Prussia above all, Wilhelm I sought to have a strong army. If you can talk about his special love and affection, then this is love for military affairs (with early age he was raised for military service). The king believed that the national unification of the country could only take place by force of arms. The words belonged to him: "Whoever wants to rule Germany must conquer it."

At the initiative of Wilhelm, a military reform was carried out in the country, the purpose of which was to increase the regular army and introduce a three-year military service. The new reform required money, and the lower house of parliament refused to allocate funds.

Under these conditions, Wilhelm I needed a strong chancellor.

Writing on the board and in a notebook

The chancellor is the head of government.

Wilhelm I turns his gaze to Otto von Bismarck. In September

1862 Otto von Bismarck, 47, an experienced politician, is appointed chancellor.

Writing on the board and in a notebook

September 1862 - Otto von Bismarck was appointed Chancellor of Prussia.

Student Message

"Otto von Bismarck".

Questions to the class:

What kind of person was Otto von Bismarck? What human qualities did he possess?

What qualities of a politician did Otto von Bismarck have?

The life principle of the "Iron Chancellor" was the expression - "the strong is always right." Bismarck outlined his views on the path of German unification in a parliamentary speech.

Working with a document

Bismarck on the unification of Germany "with iron and blood":

“... The borders of Prussia, according to the Vienna treatises, impede a healthy state life; not by the speeches and resolutions of the majority the great questions of our time are resolved - this was a big mistake in 1848 and 1849 - but by iron and blood "

From Bismarck's speech

in the House of Peoples Representatives on 30/IX 1862

Question to the document: What means of German unification did Bismarck propose? (violent)

Thus, the goal of Bismarck's policy becomes the unification of Germany under the motto: "iron and blood."

Teacher's story

Working with the map: "Unification of Germany"

The first steps towards the unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia were the wars with Denmark and Austria.

In 1864, Prussia, in alliance with Austria, entered the war against Denmark in order to capture the territories of Schleswig and Holstein (many Germans lived there). The war was short-lived - the Danish troops were defeated. Austria and Prussia received these lands in joint possession.

However, very little time passed, and Prussia, seeking to weaken Austria and eliminate its influence on the German states, in 1866 provoked a war against its recent ally. In this war, Italy took the side of Prussia, hoping to regain the Venetian region, which was under the rule of Austria. In June 1866, the Prussian army invaded the territory of Austria, and on July 3, 1866, the Austrian army was defeated near the city of Sadov. The defeated country was forced to leave the German Union and give up Schleswig and Holstein in favor of Prussia.

At the same time, Bismarck was negotiating with the German states - Nassau, Hesse and Frankfurt, which in their own way geographic location wedged between the western and eastern possessions of Prussia. They did not stand on ceremony with them - they were captured, and the rulers were given monetary compensation.

Make a conclusion: how was the unification of Germany carried out by Bismarck? What was it supposed to be state structure after the merger?

Filling in the table

Questions for comparison

Union "from below"

Association "from above"

Under whose direction

Proletariat, petty bourgeoisie, peasantry

Prussian landowners, big German bourgeoisie

How was the merger

People's Revolution

Wars, reforms

State system, possible after unification

United German Democratic Republic (elected authorities)

German Empire under Prussian leadership

The result of this policy was the formation of the North German Confederation. Austria no longer interfered, and in August 1866, 22 German states signed an agreement with Prussia on the creation of the North German Confederation.

Writing on the board and in a notebook

1866 - Formation of the North German Confederation led by Prussia.

The states that entered the union formally retained their independence. However, the new formation had its own constitution, parliament and cabinet of ministers, which was headed by Bismarck. At the head of the North German Confederation was the president, to whose position the Prussian king was forever appointed.

Working with a contour map

Printed workbook p. 71 no. 35.

Mark the borders of Prussia by 1864.

Mark the borders of the North German Confederation.

Make a conclusion: what lands were included in the North German Union?

(The North German Confederation united most of the German lands, only the South German states remained outside it)

Thus, with the creation of the North German Confederation, obstacles to the development of a single German nation were removed, and political fragmentation could no longer interfere with the development of the economy and culture.

Problem solving by students.

Since the task of unifying Germany was solved with “iron and blood”, and Otto von Bismarck was the “godfather” of the new state, a military-bureaucratic monarchy arose in the center of Europe.

Lesson conclusion;

In the middle of the 19th century, a national German state, the North German Confederation, arose in the center of Europe. The history of old Prussia ended, the history of new Germany began.

Setting homework

Paragraph 16, questions p. 127

Write a characterization of Otto von Bismarck as a politician: a) through the eyes of a Prussian journalist

b) through the eyes of an Austrian journalist

In October 1990, an important event took place in the world community - the FRG and the GDR united into one single country - Germany. The unification took place absolutely spontaneously, at lightning speed and even violently.

There were many internal and external factors that made this possible. Historians attribute the position of the USSR to an external factor; if it had been different on this issue, then most likely the possibility of such a hasty and instant (as historians of all countries of the world note) accession would have been excluded. Internal factors include the crisis that was at that time in Germany (in the GDR).

In the 1980s, the situation in the economy worsened somewhat in the German Democratic Republic, which led to a deterioration in the supply of the population. The Federal Republic of Germany continued to be on the list of advanced socialist countries. Of great importance in the development of events in 1990 in Germany were the events in the USSR, where perestroika had begun by that time under the influence of democratization. This example was followed by many other European socialist countries, but the GDR did not participate in this process, it held firm and did not succumb to this stream of events. In 1988, the government of the country banned the screening of several Soviet films that were critical of the totalitarian regime and Stalinism. Then there was a ban on distribution in Germany
the popular Russian magazine Sputnik, which was published in two languages, incl. and in German. The pages of this publication covered the events of the past and present life of the Union with critical remarks. By such measures in Germany they wanted to prevent complete information about how perestroika was going on in the USSR. But the German population was still well informed by West German television and radio. As usual, the prohibitive measures did nothing, only increased interest in the USSR.

On the reasons for the unification of Germany.

Among them, two can be noted, namely:
1. Economic:

Different wages in Germany and the GDR. This circumstance explains the completely different attitude towards work among the West and East Germans. Since the productivity of labor in the eastern part was lower, wages were an order of magnitude lower. The dissatisfaction of the population was constantly growing in the GDR, as their level and quality of life were very low compared to the FRG.

In the GDR, the work of the State Security agencies was considered exemplary; they supervised the entire population and identified those dissatisfied with the authorities. Active communist propaganda was also carried out. But, despite this, the majority of the country's population constantly expressed a desire to live in the same conditions as they live in Germany. The benefits were obvious.

2. Social:
Lack of political freedoms for expression and movement, especially when traveling outside the country. In all socialist countries at that time, travel abroad was very limited. Even in neighboring Germany, only children under 6 years old and old people over the age of 60 could travel. The period of stay in the country was limited to one month. The inhabitants of the GDR had many complaints about the dictates of the Communist Party, which did not allow young people to make their careers if they did not belong to its number.
A certain role belongs to the feeling of national community of all the people who inhabited both Germany. It was a single people with a common historical past and did not want to put up with the separation of the two countries.

Not the last role belongs to the USSR in the unification of Germany. The collapsed socialist regime in the Union became the same foreign policy factor. The "Brezhnev Doctrine" was the main topic of the speech of the representative of the USSR Ministry of Foreign Affairs when he made an official statement about the rejection of it. This statement was a death sentence for the existing communist regime in the GDR.

In 1990, the border between the two countries was opened, and after a while the Berlin Wall was dismantled. Today you can see only some of its remains, which now serve as a monument to the division of the capital. Tourists, arriving in Germany, took apart small fragments of the destroyed wall as souvenirs.