Methodology for obtaining legal statistical information. The subject of statistics as a social science
Legal statistics is a social, socio-economic science.
The subject of legal statistics is mass legal and social phenomena.
The theoretical basis of statistics is the law of large numbers. Research stages:
Observation;
Summary and processing;
Statistics is a multidisciplinary science.
Tasks of legal statistics at the present stage of economic development. Guidelines
Statistics arose from practical needs public life. The word "statistics" comes from the Latin word status.
Condition or position. From this word the Italian word “stalo” (stato) was formed, which meant a state or a controlled region, as well as knowledge about the state of affairs in them.
The first attempts to establish certain patterns of social life on the basis of statistical data were made in the 19th century. in England by John Graunt and William Petty. V. Petty (1626-1697) in his works substantiated the use numerical method to the study of social phenomena. He called his research “political arithmetic.” This was the original form of statistics.
Currently, statistics is considered as an independent science that studies the quantitative side of mass socio-economic phenomena in inextricably linked with their qualitative side.
Statistics studies the quantitative side of phenomena using statistical indicators. Statistical indicators characterize the levels, sizes, volumes of mass phenomena under certain conditions. You can, for example, talk about the number of murders, thefts, hooliganism, all kinds of crimes; about the growth rate of these indicators, that is, about their change over time - during the year, quarter, month.
The peculiarity of statistics is that in all cases its data refers to the aggregate. So, statistics, for example, are not interested in a crime committed by a specific criminal, but are interested in the number of crimes by group of people, by reason, by social class, by gender, age, etc., as well as the number of offenses by region, the country as a whole.
The study of mass phenomena is based on a certain general principle - the law of large numbers. The essence of the law of large numbers is that the general pattern of mass phenomena manifests itself under the influence of various causes only in a large set of cases, with the mutual cancellation of deviations from the pattern that develop under the influence of random causes that take place in individual individual phenomena that make up the set. The manifestation of the law of large numbers can be seen in many areas of social life phenomena studied by statistics. Average number of offenses per resident, average age of offenders, etc. - all these are statistical characteristics that express patterns common to a given mass phenomenon. Thus, the law of large numbers helps to reveal the patterns of mass phenomena as an objective necessity for their development.
Statistics as a multidisciplinary science consists of the general theory of statistics, mathematical statistics, economic statistics (statistics National economy) and industry statistics.
The general theory of statistics, as a methodological science, develops a system of statistical indicators for measuring and analyzing the socio-economic phenomena being studied and has a network of statistical methods for conducting research.
The general theory of statistics integrates each branch of statistics through research methods. Such methods include, in particular, the method of statistical groupings, tabular and graphical methods, methods for calculating average and relative values, variation indicators, dynamics indicators, index and correlation research methods.
Any completed statistical work in general and in the justice authorities in particular consists of three main stages:
1) statistical observation;
2) summaries and groupings of collected material;
3) analysis of statistical indicators.
These three stages of statistical work are inextricably linked with each other and require drawing up a preliminary plan for the entire statistical study, covering its most important sections.
Statistical observation - the first stage of statistical research - is a mass digital registration of certain individual phenomena according to certain characteristics of interest to us. The task of the first stage is to collect complete, objectively reliable information. Suppose we need to find out the volume of crimes committed over a certain period and its changes, establish their causes and outline specific measures to prevent them. Before answering the questions posed, it is obviously necessary to have at your disposal specific statistical material that covers with its indicators the quantitative side of such a phenomenon as crime. To obtain this material, we will have to, first of all, conduct statistical observation, i.e. registration for a certain period of time of each case of a crime that reached the relevant state body (police, prosecutor's office, investigation or court), characterizing this crime with pre-established signs (for example, an article of the criminal code), the place and time of the crime, conditions conducive to its commission, a measure of criminal punishment, etc.
This work will be carried out by selecting all the necessary indicators from the relevant registration cards. Of course, such cards, which are like raw material, still need to be processed and generalized, combining them into masses or aggregates, where, as is known, patterns appear, where corresponding interdependencies can be identified and measured.
The objectives of the second stage of statistical research are grouping statistical observation data into qualitatively homogeneous aggregates and summing up (summary) both individual groups and the entire mass of observed facts.
Let's ungroup all registered crimes into more homogeneous aggregates according to essential characteristics (let's assume by chapters and articles of the Criminal Code) and calculate these particular aggregates and their overall total. In practice, grouping and summary are carried out in the form of reporting, which is a count and breakdown into certain categories of relevant primary documents, i.e. cards, for criminal and civil cases, for the defendant, etc. The absolute figures obtained after such a calculation will already give some idea of the total volume of crime or civil disputes and their structure. But this is still not enough.
The third stage of any completed statistical study provides an answer to the question of changes in crime over a certain period of time. To do this, it is obviously necessary to compare data on the number of crimes committed by year, to establish which types of crimes have increased and which have decreased, in which cities, territories, regions and republics crime is most widespread, what is the connection between crime and other phenomena, for example with alcoholism , and so on. All this requires appropriate processing of summary statistical indicators, for example, bringing the share of individual types of crimes to their overall total; determining the degree of change in crime in relation to the previous period; calculation of crime rates, i.e. ratios of the number of crimes per 100 thousand population by city, territory, region and republic to compare crime in a territorial aspect; establishing the percentage of persons who committed a crime while intoxicated, etc. For example, indicators characterizing that 96% of hooliganism, 85% of murders and 67% of rapes are committed while intoxicated specifically show a direct connection between crime and alcoholism, which is the main condition contributing to the commission of crimes. Such processing and analysis of statistical data makes it possible to see the relationships and patterns in the social processes being studied, which is the most important task of the third stage.
Statistical data on the development of the national economy and individual industries are necessary material for state management of the national economy.
The conditions of the new economic reform require the improvement of statistical work, especially in terms of reflecting the effectiveness of strengthening the social system, the widespread introduction of machinery, etc.
As was said, statistics, which cover all aspects of economic, political, cultural and legal life with their indicators, are divided into a number of sectors.
One of such branches is legal statistics, which reflects with its indicators how the social and state system, state and private property are protected, how the rights and interests of individual citizens, institutions, enterprises, and public organizations guaranteed by the Constitution are protected. The main purpose of legal statistics is to take into account violations of the law considered by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the prosecutor's office, the court and public organizations, as well as measures to combat these violations.
The role of legal statistics in improving the activities of these bodies is very serious, since it is it, along with other sources, that makes it possible to establish how judicial, investigative and correctional labor institutions operate, and how they administer justice. Knowing the number of crimes committed, taking into account the criminals themselves, having information about violations of family, labor, housing and other laws, the prevalence of crimes in various sectors of the national economy, the amount of damage from these crimes, taking into account the results of the fight against criminal and other violations, the justice authorities ( in a broad sense) are given the opportunity to most effectively carry out the tasks assigned to them in strengthening the rule of law.
What phenomena does legal statistics study, i.e. what should be considered its subject? Legal statistics take into account the work of all government bodies involved in criminal law and civil law protection of the social and state system, state and private property, personality, rights and interests of citizens, enterprises and organizations. Consequently, legal statistics take into account the work of the prosecutor's office, police, courts, correctional labor institutions, arbitration, notaries, etc. Hence, its subject will be the quantitative side of those phenomena that fall within the scope of activity of these bodies. This is the quantitative side of crime and measures to combat it, criminals and punishments, as well as civil disputes that have become the object of proceedings in court, notary or arbitration.
Consequently, legal statistics aims to take into account all violations of the law considered by the relevant government bodies, and measures to prevent these violations. In accordance with this, legal statistics, using their specific methods, must quantitatively reflect those activities that state bodies carry out to protect against any attacks on the public and political system, on the economic system and state and private property, on political, labor, housing and other personal property rights and interests of citizens of the Russian Federation, on the rights and interests protected by law government agencies, enterprises, public organizations.
When studying legal statistics, we must proceed, firstly, from the different nature of legal violations that it is intended to take into account, and secondly, from the different nature of the institutions that practically deal with legal statistics. Based on this division, legal statistics is divided into two independent branches:
1) criminal statistics, which have as their immediate object the quantitative side of crime and measures to prevent it;
2) civil law statistics, the direct object of which is the quantitative side of civil law relations considered by the court, arbitration and notary.
Thus, legal statistics reflect with their indicators all stages of criminal and civil processes.
Each branch of legal statistics - criminal law and civil law - is divided into several sections in accordance with the main stages of criminal and civil processes.
On this basis, criminal statistics, which reflect the process of combating crime with their indicators, are divided into the following component sections:
a) preliminary investigation statistics, taking into account the activities of government bodies that investigate crimes and identify those responsible for their commission;
b) statistics of criminal proceedings, reflecting the work of the courts of the first, second (cassation) and supervisory instances in the trial of criminal cases;
c) statistics on the execution of sentences, reflecting the work of correctional labor institutions.
An independent subtype of criminal statistics is statistics of prosecutorial supervision. All this plays a serious role in improving the work of these bodies, as well as in the study and prevention of crime.
A few words should be said about a current and promising direction in the study and prevention of crime - victimology, which literally means “the study of the victim” (from the Latin lpsIta - victim). Victimology is designed to study the victim of a crime, or, more precisely, people who have suffered from criminal attacks, in a variety of aspects. Such studies require the organization of a special section of criminal statistics. As can be seen from the examination of many criminal cases and from a generalization of judicial practice, human behavior is sometimes not only criminal, but also victimized, i.e. risky, dissolute, provocative, frivolous, and, therefore, dangerous to oneself. The ultimate goal of victimology is the development of certain measures to avoid situations in which the personality or behavior of the victim itself may be the reason for committing crimes. You can't do without statistics here. The main task of victimization statistics is to provide a quantitative description of the personality of victims and their behavior in the following approximate areas:
1) the crime committed, the identity of the accused and the harm caused by him;
2) demographic, socio-psychological, legal and other characteristics characterizing the personality of the victim;
3) the role of the victim in a conflict situation (his interaction with the accused, his condition and behavior at the time of the crime, the question of the “guilt” of the victim - moral, criminal, etc.).
Consequently, criminal statistics should include not only indicators characterizing crime, measures to combat it and the identity of the offender, but also victimization and its prevention. This will quantitatively reflect the personality of the victim, his behavior, as well as measures aimed at preventing a victim situation, i.e. such when the reason for committing crimes may be the personality or behavior of the victim himself.
The second branch of legal statistics is civil statistics. Its main goal is to take into account civil legal relations that are subject to resolution by court and arbitration.
The field of civil law statistics includes the recording of such civil legal relations that, without being associated with an offense and not being the subject of a civil dispute, are certified in administrative, notarial or indisputable judicial proceedings (for example, certification of wills by a notary, issuance of a certificate of inheritance , court certification of work experience, etc.).
Civil statistics are divided into two sections:
1) statistics of civil proceedings, covering the work of courts in considering civil cases;
2) statistics on the execution of court decisions, covering the activities of bailiffs in enforcing court decisions in civil cases.
Legal statistics are managed by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the FSB, the Ministry of Justice, and the Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, which have special statistics departments. These departments develop indicators for statistical reporting, taking into account the main objectives and relevant changes in legislation, and issue instructions for statistical reporting.
Thus, the organization of the statistical apparatus in the courts, the prosecutor's office and the Ministry of Internal Affairs ensures the collection, processing and analysis of statistical material necessary for a comprehensive description of their activities, to identify and eliminate existing shortcomings, and, consequently, to more effectively carry out the tasks facing them. these bodies at the present time.
Governing bodies use, along with materials from surveys, audits and the study of certain categories of criminal and civil cases, also materials from legal statistics when summarizing judicial and prosecutorial practice. Statistics make it possible, for example, to determine the main directions in the development of judicial repression and find out how typical shortcomings are in the application of criminal penalties.
However, it would be completely wrong to limit ourselves only to statistical data. No matter how important legal statistics are, they must always be supported by in-depth study. For final conclusions, a comprehensive qualitative analysis of the objects and processes under study and comprehensive knowledge of practice are required. Only under this indispensable condition will indicators of legal statistics reveal the qualitative uniqueness of the phenomena under study.
The role of criminal statistics in the study and prevention of crime is extremely important. Criminal statistics provide comprehensive, scientifically based information about the state of crime, its structure and dynamics, the causes and conditions conducive to the commission of crimes, the identity of the criminal, the pros and cons in the activities of the police, prosecutors, courts and correctional labor institutions. All this is necessary to increase the effectiveness of activities aimed at combating crime.
One form of use of legal statistics relates to the field of legislation. Illustrating with its indicators the practice of applying certain laws, characterizing the movement individual species violations, statistics confirm the expediency or, conversely, inexpediency of a particular law in a given period, its effectiveness. Hence, there may be a need to establish a different procedure for regulating certain civil relations (for example, family relations), and new forms of combating crime.
The last form of use of legal statistics relates to the field theoretical research. Legal statistics have a very wide application in research work on the study of crime and other issues of criminology, criminal and civil law and process. By presenting the necessary material characterizing the volume and dynamics of criminal law and civil law phenomena, legal statistics reinforces and illustrates the relevant provisions and conclusions of these sciences. It enriches these sciences with knowledge of specific facts and phenomena; it shows where, how and under what conditions criminal and civil offenses are committed, what is their relationship with other social phenomena. Legal statistics, thus, is one of the most important sources supplying legal science with factual material for theoretical generalization.
CONTROL QUESTIONS
/. ("formulate a definition of the subject studied by legal statistics?
2. What is the theoretical basis of statistics?
3. What stages does a statistical study contain?
4. What are statistical indicators?
5. What are the components of legal statistics?
6. What are the main tasks of legal statistics in modern society?
Legal statistics
Subject, method and tasks of legal statistics
Statistics, like other sciences, has its own subject and method of knowledge. At the present stage, the term statistics has three different meanings:
1. statistics is understood as a special branch of practical activity of people, aimed at collecting, processing and analyzing data characterizing the socio-economic situation of the state, its regions, areas of law enforcement, etc.
2. statistics This is a science that develops theoretical principles and methods used in statistical practice (statistical science relies on materials from practice and, generalizing the experience of practice, develops new provisions).
3. statistics , as it is often defined, these are statistical data presented in reports on various economic sectors, the results of sociological and criminological research published in collections, media mass media, which represent the result of statistical work.
Subject The study of legal statistics is a quantitative characteristic of mass phenomena and processes of a legal nature in inextricable connection with their qualitative side.
In each specific case object statistical research is a certain statistical population.
The statistical totality of the legal phenomena being studied can be:
The population of the country, city, village, district, persons who committed offenses, crimes, facts of appeals to the courts, the number of decisions made by judicial and other law enforcement agencies, and the like.
In turn, the population under study may differ in such characteristics as gender, nationality, place of residence, the severity of the crime committed, the degree of public danger, the level of competence of the decision-making body, etc.
So, for example, when taking into account crime and criminal records in Russia, the statistical aggregate includes all facts of committing acts prohibited by criminal law, as well as persons who have committed crimes and were sentenced to serve a criminal sentence by a court verdict, and a separate individual is considered as an accounting unit of the observed statistical aggregate crime or criminal.
As an example of a statistical aggregate, we provide information on the distribution of various groups of crimes in Russia as a whole and federal districts(Table 3.1).
Table 3.1
Crime rate in federal districts of Russia in 2002.
To determine the quantitative characteristics of a statistical population, special statistical research methods are used.
The components of the statistical research method are (Fig. 3.1.)
Rice. 3.1. Components of a statistical research method
At the stage of mass statistical observation, based on developed programs and tools (instructions, forms, tables, etc.), a scientifically organized collection of information about the processes or phenomena of social life being studied is carried out.
Grouping and summary are performed on the basis of data obtained as a result of statistical observation. The collected material is systematized and, as a rule, compiled into statistical tables.
The definition and analysis of general indicators allows us to establish cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomena and processes being studied, give an assessment, and formulate conclusions and proposals.
Statistics based on a system of statistical indicators provides a quantitative measure of the structure, volume, dynamics and relationship of the phenomena and processes being studied.
THE IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS IN LAW ENFORCEMENT
FEATURES OF STATISTICAL OBSERVATION WITHIN
CURRENT PROBLEMS OF STATISTICAL
ACCOUNTING IN LAW ENFORCEMENT:
MIGRATION OF POPULATION, PROBLEMS OF ACCOUNTING
AND REGULATION
Today, a large number of people fall into the field of law enforcement social problems. This is due to the fact that during the transition to a democratic society the most effective way to resolve social conflicts lies in the field of law. Globalization modern world strengthens many social contradictions, and their actions extend even to those countries that have not previously encountered them.
And in this regard, it should be noted that today the problem of regulating population migration, the importance of which fifteen to twenty years ago was extremely insignificant, is quite relevant for Russia.
Migration processes can be called an indicator of the development of the situation in society, since it is here that the reaction to changes in the economic, political and social life of the state is clearly visible.
Starting from February 2002, activities in the field of regulation of migration processes were transferred to the authority of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in accordance with Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 232 “On improving public administration in the field of migration policy” 1.
Migration problems are among the most pressing today throughout the world. Of particular concern is the situation in the field of illegal migration, which, according to experts, is one of the global phenomena of modern international life.
Almost all regions of the world and many states are involved in this process as either sending countries, receiving countries, or countries with mixed flows. The role of individual participants may vary. Today, in addition to the traditional host countries (USA, Canada, Israel, Australia), many states of Western Europe fully enjoy this status; in recent decades, they have been joined by the countries of Southern Europe (Italy, Spain, Portugal), as well as dynamically developing regions of Asia. All these states are, to one degree or another, experiencing pressure from illegal migrants 2 .
Modern Russia can be viewed from three perspectives:
Firstly, this is the country of origin (thus, according to some estimates, about 1.5-2 million people annually traveled abroad just to earn money, among whom only 45,800 had a work permit in 2000 1);
Secondly, the territory Russian Federation used for the transit of illegal migrants (due to the actual openness of huge sections of its border, Russia is still widely used by illegal migrants as a transit territory. During 1997-1999, Russian border service officers detained 1,965 people (of which 1,538 were Afghans) on the border with Kazakhstan and 2618 on the border with Ukraine.During 1998-2000, 8928 people were detained while trying to enter Russia and other countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia (EECA) under the protection of Russian border guards; another 6750 people were detained while trying to leave invalid documents. In 2000, about 150 thousand people with expired visas were fined, more than a thousand people were detained while trying to leave Russia using false documents. Of the latter, approximately 184 people were from Bangladesh, 154 from Turkey, 151 from Sri Lanka. Lanka, 141 from India and 49 each from Pakistan and China.Approximately 400 organized groups of human traffickers have been apprehended since 1999-2000; in 1998, 16.2 thousand travel agencies were fined (6,300 in 1999 and 7,100 in 2000). In 1998-2000 a total of 70,300 illegal migrants were deported from Russia 2);
Thirdly, Russia is a destination country for migrants. In addition to officially registered flows, approximately 1.5 million migrants - half of them Chinese and a significant number of Afghans - lived in Russia illegally. This category included Chinese and Vietnamese migrant workers and petty traders with expired visas; up to 60 thousand foreign students from developing countries (mainly from Afghanistan, Iraq, Cuba, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea and Ethiopia) who arrived during the Soviet era and did not return home after completing their studies; another 9 thousand students, mainly from African countries, who arrived after 1991 and stayed longer; 7 thousand labor migrants with expired work permits; 4-5 thousand Vietnamese and North Korean contract workers who arrived during the Soviet era and did not leave after the end of the contract, as well as asylum seekers, transit migrants and other categories of migrants. It is estimated that over 3 million labor migrants arrived annually from EECA countries to work in Russia, of which only 100 thousand had legal work permits.
In addition, for the effectiveness of the study of any social process, it is necessary to determine not only the quantitative component, but also qualitative characteristics that allow us to consider the object of study from a systemic perspective. And first of all, for analysis it is important to identify the factor component that determines the development of the object being studied.
As noted by Professor N.M. Rimashevskaya, the direct factors of international population migration that affect its intensity are reduced to four groups:
Differences in demographic reproduction regimes, causing the aging of the population in some countries and the formation of a relatively young structure in others;
Significant and increasing polarization of living standards, growing deprivations and exclusions in individual countries;
Overpopulation of predominantly backward regions of the world;
Differences in the degree of employment of the working-age population and an increase in the level of unemployment, which primarily causes labor migration 2.
Taking these factors into account makes it possible to more effectively predict the development of migration processes in the Russian Federation. In addition, this makes it possible to identify the most attractive regions for illegal migration, which are mostly border areas (Far Eastern region, Krasnodar region) and industrialized centers (Moscow, Moscow region, St. Petersburg and Leningrad region).
It is extremely difficult to estimate the volume of illegal migration. The results of numerous studies conducted in recent years within the framework of the Migration Information Program under the auspices of the International Organization for Migration are based mainly on methods for studying indirect characteristics and expert assessments.
The main sources of information when conducting research using the method of expert assessments are data collected by official state statistics on measures aimed at suppressing illegal migration.
The sources of all the necessary information are precisely those government agencies that are assessed based on indicators of the effectiveness of control of migration processes. In this regard, it is necessary to note the following: the structures maintaining statistical records in these areas are quite closed, and statistics are of a departmental nature, which serves as an obstacle to the study of migration processes.
The departmental procedure for registering information in the field of migration processes and maintaining statistics cannot provide an adequate idea of both the general social situation in Russia and the crime situation related to migration. We can talk about that. that departmental accounting, the departmental nature of migration statistics lead to various negative phenomena (the inability to identify priorities in the implementation of migration policy and criminal policy, various forms of human rights violations, etc.). Experts emphasize the need to create a research base to formulate the concept of migration policy, social and criminological monitoring, and legislative acts.
The monopoly of departmental science in the field of obtaining knowledge about such a social object as migration, in the development of bills and government programs is fraught with serious losses for society, since the nature of the departmental approach includes a certain focus on the implementation of corporate interests, serving the political interests of individual public groups, and not on posing and solving real social problems, not on obtaining fundamental, objective knowledge.
In the absence of an element of independent science, it is impossible to formulate socially significant goals, determine the mechanisms and limits of activity for individual government structures, and develop an effective migration policy.
To create a scientifically based concept of migration policy, it is necessary to present it as a complex activity consisting of three levels: foundations, subjects and objects (addressees of the activity).
When developing migration policy in general for the Russian Federation, as well as in a particular region, it is necessary to analyze the situation and, on this basis, connect all these levels. That's right. It is necessary not only to know the social and criminal situation in the country, region, to identify possible effective subjects of activity, but also to identify recipients - potential consumers of the results of activity. In addition, it is necessary to understand the capabilities, directions, strategies of various entities, as well as the possibilities of interaction between them.
To predict the development of the migration situation in Russia, the research process should include as subjects both the bodies directly involved in regulating this area, and those structures that at this stage are in the most convenient position for research.
So. famous American scientist D.T. Campbell. points out that “in the case of action research, there are a number of other relevant groups of non-professional observers, persons who are in a position convenient for observation, which is not typical for other social roles. This includes the management staff of the program and those groups of citizens who are in constant contact with persons experiencing the effects of the program." In our case, along with specialists from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. FSB (in terms of border control), the Ministry of Internal Affairs. must be considered as possible experts, representatives of ethnic diasporas, public associations of a national, religious nature.In the modern situation, it is precisely such “non-professional observers” who are in the most convenient position for observation.
A research program for the state of illegal migration and trends in its further development should include two levels, only when correlated can the results be valid.
Thus, from the point of view of studying official statistics, it is necessary to include representatives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the monitoring. FSB and Ministry of Internal Affairs.
In the process of studying the social situation, in addition to specialists from state law enforcement agencies, experts in the field of social protection, health care, employment, education, as well as representatives of public associations of a foreign nature should be included.
Thus, the research algorithm should include two approaches. The first should consist of conducting a survey of experts from law enforcement agencies and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, federal and municipal authorities, who must be provided with statistical data for at least three years in the following areas for assessment:
Information about refusals to issue entry visas and the number of foreigners not allowed into the country (mainly due to improper execution of entry documents, their absence, or attempts to enter using invalid, forged or foreign documents);
The number of people arrested or detained at the border while attempting to cross it illegally (mainly victims of migrant smuggling);
Information about deportations, i.e. on the number of persons forcibly expelled from the country;
The number of persons detained and prosecuted for violating the passport and visa regime.
The result is a summarized opinion of a group of experts on the nature of officially registered illegal migration and, based on available data, on the effectiveness of the structures involved in the regulation of this area, on the possible unaccounted component of illegal migration in Russia.
The second direction includes conducting surveys and questioning of representatives of public organizations of an ethno-national nature, as well as representatives of the local population, constituent entities of the Russian Federation that are most attractive to illegal migrants, and entrepreneurs working in the construction, trade, service and entertainment sectors.
The main result this direction there should be a list of problems associated with illegal migration that have a negative connotation, increase anxiety in society, and disrupt the effective functioning of social institutions.
TESTS for Chapter 3
1. The purpose of criminological research is:
a) obtaining various data about the social situation in society;
b) obtaining data on the state of society and the state from the perspective of studying crime;
c) obtaining any data about the company.
2. The criminological research program is:
a) a set of methods necessary to achieve the research goal;
b) methods and tools of criminological research:
c) sequence of actions, methodology and certain stages and phases of criminological research. 3. The object of criminological research is:
a) crime;
b) social groups of the population;
c) the social situation in the region.
4. Regulation of migration processes is one of the areas of activity:
a) states;
b) the international community;
c) Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation.
5. For better statistical accounting of migration flows, it is first necessary to:
includes regulation of migration processes;
b) development of a unified state migration policy;
c) increasing the activity of police services.
6. In judicial instances, primary statistical records are:
a) statistical cards;
b) accounting logs;
c) statistical forms.
7. In notary offices, primary statistical accounting documents are:
a) statistical forms;
b) registers (lists);
c) log books.
8. Statistical reporting in the Department of Internal Affairs is:
a) statistical forms;
b) a system of statistical cards, journals and registers;
c) statistical forms.
9. Civil registry offices (registry offices) carry out statistical accounting using:
a) registration acts;
b) statistical cards;
c) log books.
10. To take into account the activities of the Bar to promote the protection of the rights and legitimate interests of citizens in the administration of justice, the following are used:
a) registration cards;
b) accounting logs;
c) registers.
AND TECHNOLOGY
In order for the information obtained about each observation unit to be used to characterize the population being studied as a whole, it must be scientifically processed, systematized, counted and generalized.
A statistical summary is a scientifically organized systematization and calculation of group and general summary statistical data.
The purpose of the summary is to bring together statistical observation materials and obtain general statistical indicators that characterize the essence of socio-economic phenomena or processes that reflect certain statistical patterns.
A summary of statistical data is carried out according to a pre-compiled program, the content of which is determined by the objectives of the study. The program should contain a list of objects and indicators for studying the phenomenon under study, and a selection of grouping characteristics. The program must provide a system of table layouts in which objects, groups and subgroups and the total and intermediate indicators necessary to characterize them are listed in a certain order.
According to the execution technique, the summary can be performed either manually or mechanized.
Based on the organization of work, a distinction is made between centralized and decentralized reports (Fig. 4.1.1).
With centralized reporting, observation materials are concentrated in one central body (for example, Federal service state statistics of the Russian Federation (formerly Goskomstat), and in the case of departmental statistics - the State Information Center of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia).
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Rice. 11. Statistical summary
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With a decentralized summary, the generalization of the collected information is carried out locally - in district, city, regional, and regional statistical bodies according to a unified plan. The summary results are transferred to the higher statistical body for further generalization.
In addition, a distinction is made between a summary in the narrow sense, which is a counting (summarization) of data on the number of units in the population and the meaning of their characteristics. This summary is otherwise called a simple summary.
A complex summary, or summary in a broad sense, is a method of scientific processing of primary statistical information, including grouping the phenomena under study, obtaining a system of indicators to characterize typical groups and subgroups, calculating group and overall results, tabular and graphical presentation of statistical indicators.C
WITH SIGNIFICANCE AND TYPES OF GROUPS
Summary and grouping are interrelated processes in the statistical study of mass observations. Without a summary, it is impossible to make a grouping; a summary without grouping does not allow identifying the characteristic features of individual types of phenomena, or establishing the patterns of the phenomena under study and the relationships between them.
Statistical grouping(Fig. 12) is the process of dividing a complex mass phenomenon into homogeneous groups according to some significant characteristics in order to identify types of phenomena, study the structure and analyze their state, development and relationships. At the same time, this is a method of combining population units into homogeneous groups, according to which statistical indicators are determined.
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The characteristic that forms the basis of a group is called a grouping characteristic, or the basis of a group.
Rice. 12. Statistical groupings
Grouped sign - it is a distinctive feature inherent in a unit of a statistical population, on the basis of which individual groups are constructed.
All characteristics are divided into attributive (qualitative) and quantitative.
Attributive, or qualitative, characteristics can only be expressed by discrete indicators in the form of a text record. Examples of qualitative characteristics can be: gender, nationality, country, type of activity, education, type of criminal activity, branch of law, etc. The number of possible groups is determined by the number of characteristics being studied.
When grouped according to a quantitative criterion, in contrast to a qualitative one, each group has a digital expression and can take on any fractional and integer values, that is, it is a continuously changing quantity. Such grouping characteristics include, for example, age, work experience, production or consumption of products, yield, sown area, etc. In table 4.2.1 presents qualitative grouping characteristics - crimes against life and health in the federal districts of the Russian Federation.
Any statistical study begins, firstly, with obtaining initial statistical data, for example, taking into account violations of court decisions or other legally significant facts; and secondly, with generalizing the established facts into the appropriate totality; the data obtained on any grounds are summarized in various forms of reporting. The statistical summary program includes the following stages: development of a system of indicators characterizing crime or other social and legal phenomenon as a whole and its individual groups;...
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Three methods of legal statistics:
Mass statistical observation;
Statistical observation the first stage of statistical research of any legal or legally significant phenomenon, which is a scientifically organized collection of data on legal and legally significant phenomena and processes by recording established facts in accounting documents for subsequent generalization.
Any statistical study begins, firstly, with obtaining initial statistical data (for example, taking into account offenses, court decisions or other legally significant facts), and secondly, with generalizing the established facts into an appropriate set (the obtained data are summarized according to some characteristics in various reporting forms).
Mass statistical observation is an observation in which all units of the population, without exception, are subject to registration. Mass observation allows you to obtain complete data about the phenomenon being studied (for example, a complete record of all registered offenses), it is the most reliable and reliable, but due to its high cost, it can be carried out only on a limited number of indicators.
The opportunity to reduce labor and financial costs, expand the observation program and study the phenomena and processes being studied in more detail is provided by selective observation.
Summary and grouping;
A statistical summary is a scientific processing of statistical observation materials, including systematization and grouping of primary statistical information, entering them into tables, calculating group and overall results, calculating derived indicators to characterize groups and the object as a whole (percentages, coefficients, averages).
The statistical summary allows you to move from primary materials from statistical cards, accounting logs, etc. to a generalizing characteristic of the population as a whole (from individual crimes to crime as a socio-legal phenomenon, etc.), to analyze and predict the development of the phenomena and processes being studied.
The statistical summary program includes the following steps:
Development of a system of indicators characterizing crime or other social and legal phenomenon in general and its individual groups;
Statistical grouping of the obtained data;
Calculation of group and general results (technique (manually, on a computer) and summary methods);
Development of layouts for summary statistical tables to present summary results (for example, statistical reporting forms).
Statistical grouping is the process of dividing a statistical population into qualitatively homogeneous groups or combining individual cases into qualitatively homogeneous groups according to their essential characteristics.
For example, grouping crimes by types, categories of severity, methods of commission, object of attack (against the individual, the state, in the economic sphere, etc.), etc. The selection of essential features is determined by the goals and objectives of the study. At the same time, the correct selection of such features is a very important point, since the use of different grouping techniques when analyzing the same statistical material can lead to completely opposite conclusions. Therefore, in order to identify patterns of development of legal phenomena and processes, it is necessary to use such grouping characteristics that arise from actually existing patterns.
Grouping features can be qualitative or quantitative features of the phenomenon being studied.
Summary and Analysis
Generalization and analysis of collected and grouped data based on the use of general statistical indicators: absolute, relative and average values, coefficients, indices, etc. Statistical analysis allows us to identify cause-and-effect relationships, establish patterns and interdependencies of the studied legal or legally significant phenomena, evaluate the effectiveness of the current systems of measures to combat crime.
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Legal statistics is understood as a science based on the principles of the general theory of mathematical statistics and studying the quantitative side of mass legal phenomena and processes in order to reveal their qualitative content, as well as trends and patterns of development in specific conditions of place and time.
The mathematical basis of any branch of statistics, including legal, is the law of large numbers, which states that statistical patterns are formed and clearly manifested only in a mass process and with a sufficiently large number of units in the population.
With a large number of observations, experimental research results become close to theoretical ones.
Thus, by studying various legal phenomena in large quantities, such as: criminal offenses, road accidents, filing all kinds of lawsuits, etc., legal statistics make it possible to predict the growth of crimes in the future, as well as the patterns of their development, as a result of which the role of preventive measures increases in preventing various types of crime.
- 1. The method of mass statistical observation consists in studying a large number of offenses, which makes it possible to identify objective patterns in the field of crimes, in the law enforcement activities of courts, prosecutors, police and other law enforcement agencies. To obtain objective results, statistical observation must cover either the entire (general) set of the phenomena being studied, or such a part of it that would be sufficiently representative (representative) and would allow us to say that the results identified on the basis of incomplete data have such and such an error.
- 2. Summary and grouping of observation data is the next method (stage) of legal statistics. Its essence lies in the reduction and grouping of data obtained through statistical observation, according to certain characteristics, so that each group represents a certain qualitative homogeneity. For example, the totality of the crimes studied is grouped by the objects of encroachment (against the individual, the economy, the state, etc.), by the content of the motivation (selfish, violent, etc.) or by the subjects of the crimes (gender, age, social status, previous criminal record). Summary and grouping of data allows you to see the structure of the phenomena being studied, their similarities and differences. This method allows you to see the unity of quantitative and qualitative in a particular set.
- 3. Statistical quantitative analysis allows us to identify patterns and interdependencies of mass legal, criminological and sociological phenomena. The results of statistical research at this stage are expressed in percentages, coefficients, indices and other general indicators that do not include private, individual or random deviations. They reveal the main trends, typical features, correlations, characteristics.
Comprehensive qualitative analysis of legal quantitative phenomena is applied at all stages of statistical research. It involves a deep understanding of the essence of the analyzed processes on the basis of theoretical provisions of civil, criminal law, criminology, etc., followed by deepening the theory of these sciences and improving legal practice.
Using the above methods, legal statistics provide:
- - study of the criminological characteristics of crime, and together with sociology - criminal law - and the study of non-criminalized criminal activity;
- - study of the causes and conditions of crimes;
- - study of criminological characteristics of the personality of offenders;
- - forecasting crime and individual criminal behavior;
- - planning and organizing the fight against criminal offenses;
- - checking the effectiveness of the fight against criminal manifestations.
Statistical observation includes:
- - defining the goals and objectives of statistical observation;
- - selection of the research object;
- - establishment of units of observation, aggregate, measurement;
- - drawing up an observation program.
The goals of statistical observation can be very different. They arise from the real social and legal needs of law enforcement and other legal institutions or the state as a whole. For example, tracking the level of recorded crime, detection rate, criminal record and total number prisoners compiles a database on the basis of which the fight against crime is organized and the safety of society is assessed. Other, more detailed or specific information about crime or criminal records is collected in connection with emerging tasks.
The choice of object of observation depends on the goals set and includes a set of socio-legal relations that should be studied to achieve the goals. For example, if the purpose of observation is to develop a more effective fight against corruption among civil servants, then the object of observation may be the totality of social and legal relations in the field civil service: the level of corrupt acts committed, the actual proportion of their detection by law enforcement agencies, the circumstances of the latency of corruption, the causes and conditions contributing to the corruption of public servants, the proportion of corrupt officials who bear real criminal liability for their actions, the level of criminalization of real corrupt acts, etc.
The unit of observation is usually the source from which the primary statistical information should be obtained. For example, police departments, district or city prosecutor's offices, district courts, etc.
A population unit is considered to be the primary constituent indivisible element of the population under study, the characteristics of which must be recorded during the observation process. For example, such elements include crime, criminal, victim, plaintiff, defendant, etc.
The unit of measurement shows in what quantities the socio-legal phenomena studied by legal statistics are taken into account. For example, in the statistical reporting of criminal justice authorities, three indicators are used as units of crime measurement: criminal case (investigative or judicial proceedings), crime (by type) and the subject of the crime (by persons) - suspect, accused, defendant, convicted person, prisoner.
The statistical observation program is a list of clearly formulated questions to which reliable answers must be obtained during the observation process. The content of the program is determined by the goals and specifics of the observation object.
The form of a statistical summary can be decentralized, which happens when it is finalized locally, for example, in the lower-level internal affairs bodies, the prosecutor's office, the tax police or in court; mixed (reporting is carried out in the district, city, then in the subject of the Federation, and then in the center); centralized (only in the center).
The components of a summary and grouping are:
- a) development of a system of indicators characterizing crime or other social and legal phenomenon in general and its individual groups;
- b) statistical grouping of the obtained data;
- c) calculation of group and general results;
- d) presentation of results in statistical tables and graphs.
The development of a system of indicators characterizing a particular phenomenon is considered the first, and the grouping of data itself is the second element of the considered stage of summary and grouping of statistical indicators. These elements are closely related to each other, since the basis of any summary of quantitative materials is always the grouping of indicators collected during the observation process. The grouping of statistical data, determined by the objectives and goals of the study, involves the division of indicators on crimes, administrative offenses, criminal and civil proceedings into qualitatively homogeneous groups according to essential characteristics.
Grouping characteristics can reflect the qualitative or quantitative side of the phenomenon being studied. When distributing data according to quantitative characteristics (age of offenders, number of persons in an organized criminal group, number of convictions, terms of imprisonment, etc.), it is necessary to identify the total number of groups and determine the difference between the maximum and minimum values of the characteristic (interval) in each group. Moreover, intervals cannot be chosen arbitrarily, based on external signs, equality, etc. They must reflect the essential aspects of phenomena and processes and reveal the transition from quantity to quality.
Statistical groupings reflecting qualitative (attributive) characteristics (the degree of social danger and severity of crimes, the type of acts, the content of the motivation for criminal behavior, the social status of offenders, the conditions for the moral formation of the individual in the family, the nature of the civil claim, the type of civil tort, etc. ) are widespread in socio-legal studies.
The term "statistics" appeared in the mid-18th century. Meant "government". It became widespread in monasteries. Gradually acquired a collective meaning.
On the one hand, statistics are a set of numerical indicators that characterize social phenomena and processes (labor statistics, transport statistics).
On the other hand, statistics refers to the practical activities of collecting, processing, and analyzing data in various areas of public life.
On the third hand, statistics are the results of mass accounting published in various collections.
Finally, in the natural sciences, statistics refers to methods and methods for assessing the correspondence of mass observation data to mathematical formulas.
Thus, statistics is a social science that studies the quantitative side of mass social phenomena in inextricable connection with their qualitative side.
Objectives of Statistics
(1) Development of a system of hypotheses characterizing the development, dynamics, and state of socio-economic phenomena.
(2) Organization of statistical activities.
(3) Development of analysis methodology.
(4) Development of a system of indicators for farm management at the macro and micro levels.
(5) Popularize statistical observation data.
A statistical population is a set of units of the phenomenon being studied, united by a single quality basis, a common connection, but differing from each other in individual characteristics. These are, for example, a set of households, a set of families, a set of enterprises, firms, associations, etc.
A set is called homogeneous if one or more of the essential characteristics of its objects being studied are common to all units.
A set that includes phenomena of different types is considered heterogeneous. A population may be homogeneous in one respect and heterogeneous in another. In each individual case, the homogeneity of the population is established by conducting a qualitative analysis, clarifying the content of the social phenomenon being studied.
A characteristic is a qualitative feature of a unit of a population. According to the nature of the display of the properties of the units of the studied population, the signs are divided into two main groups:
characteristics that have a direct quantitative expression, for example age, work experience, average earnings, etc. They can be discrete or continuous;
characteristics that do not have direct quantitative expression. In this case, individual units of the population differ in their content (for example, professions - the nature of work: teacher, carpenter, seamstress-machine operator, etc.). Such features are usually called attributive (in philosophy, “attribute” is an integral property of an object). In the case when there are variants of a characteristic that are opposite in meaning, they speak of an alternative characteristic (yes, no). For example, products may be suitable or defective (not suitable); for representatives of certain age groups there is a probability of surviving or not surviving to the next age group; each person may be married or not, etc.
Variation is the difference in the values of a characteristic among different units of a population over the same period of time. The cause of variation is the different conditions of existence of different units of the population. Variation - necessary condition existence and development of mass phenomena. Determining variation is necessary when organizing sample observation, statistical modeling and planning expert surveys. By the degree of variation, one can judge the homogeneity of the population, the stability of the values of the characteristic, the typicality of the average, and the relationship between any characteristics. Variation indicators: relative and absolute.
State statistics bodies of the Russian Federation
In accordance with Art. 71 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the management of statistics in the country is carried out by the State Statistics Committee as a federal executive body.
Goskomstat of the Russian Federation, its bodies in republics, territories, regions, autonomous regions and districts, in the cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg, other cities and regions, as well as organizations, institutions and educational establishments constitute a unified system of state statistics of the country.
The forms and methods for collecting and processing statistical data, the methodology for calculating statistical indicators, established by the State Statistics Committee, are the statistical standards of the Russian Federation.
In accordance with the regulations, the main tasks of the State Statistics Committee of Russia are:
1) provision of official statistical information to the President, government, Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation, federal executive authorities, and the public;
2) development of scientifically based statistical methodology that meets international standards;
3) coordination of statistical activities in the state;
4) development of economic and statistical information, its analysis, compilation of national accounts, carrying out the necessary balance calculations;
The main functions of the State Statistics Committee of Russia are that it:
1) organizes the conduct of state statistical observations according to the programs, forms and methods developed by him or agreed with him;
2) ensures the functioning of the Unified State Register of Enterprises and Organizations;
3) ensures the collection, processing, storage and protection of statistical information, compliance with state and commercial secrets, the necessary confidentiality of data (confidential - secret, confidential);
4) compares the main socio-economic indicators of Russia with similar indicators of other countries, together with the Central Bank compiles the country’s balance of payments;
5) pursues a unified technical policy in the field of collection, processing and transmission of statistical information, in the development and formation federal programs on issues entrusted to Goskomstat.
The Research Institute of Statistics of the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation plays a major role. The Scientific and Methodological Council of the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation, which unites leading workers in state statistics and representatives of economic and statistical science, also takes part in this work.
The organization of international statistics is carried out by the statistical services of the United Nations (UN), specialized agencies (ILO, FAO, WHO, etc.) and other international organizations - the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the European Community (EC), the International Monetary Fund (IMF) ), World Bank, etc. The activities of the statistical services of these organizations include the development of international standards that ensure the comparability of statistical indicators different countries, implementation of international comparisons, publication of data on groups of countries, regions and the world as a whole. Foreign national and international statistical publications, as well as domestic ones, can be divided into consolidated, including data on all sections of statistics, and specialized, including data on any one industry, for example, financial, demographic, agricultural and other statistics. Of the consolidated publications, the most important is the UN yearbook - Statistical Yearbook. The international scientific center in the field of statistics is the International Statistical Institute (ISI).
Coordination of the activities of the statistical services of the CIS member countries is carried out by the Statistical Committee of the Commonwealth of Independent States, created in 1992. Statistical collections on the CIS countries and other neighboring countries are published.
Statistics methods:
1. Statistical observation
Quantitative characterization of socio-economic processes in direct connection with their qualitative essence is impossible without in-depth statistical research. The use of various methods and techniques of statistical methodology presupposes the availability of comprehensive and reliable information about the object being studied, which includes the stages of collecting statistical information and its primary processing, information and grouping of observation results into certain aggregates, generalization and analysis of the obtained materials.
If an error is made during the collection of statistical data or the material turns out to be of poor quality, this will affect the correctness and reliability of both theoretical and practical conclusions. Therefore, statistical observation from the initial to the final stage must be carefully thought out and clearly organized.
Statistical observation is the first stage of any statistical research, which is a scientifically organized accounting of facts characterizing the phenomena and processes of social life, organized according to a unified program, and the collection of mass data obtained on the basis of this accounting.
The following requirements apply to statistical observation:
1) completeness and practical value of statistical data;
2) reliability and accuracy of data;
3) their uniformity and comparability.
Any statistical study must begin with a precise formulation of its purpose and specific objectives, and thereby the information that can be obtained during the observation process. After this, the object and unit of observation are determined, a program is developed, and the type and method of observation are selected.
The object of observation is a set of socio-economic phenomena and processes that are subject to research, or the exact boundaries within which statistical information will be recorded. For example, during a population census it is necessary to establish which population is subject to registration - cash, i.e. actually located in a given area at the time of the census, or permanent, i.e. permanently living in a given area.
In a number of cases, one or another qualification is used to delimit the object of observation. A qualification is a restrictive feature that all units of the population under study must satisfy.
The unit of observation is called component object of observation, which serves as the basis of the account and has characteristics that are subject to registration during observation.
For example, in a population census, the unit of observation is each individual person.
An observation program is a list of issues on which information is collected, or a list of signs and indicators to be recorded. The observation program is drawn up in the form of a form (questionnaire, form) in which primary information is entered. A necessary addition to the form is instructions (or instructions on the forms themselves) explaining the meaning of the question. The composition and content of the questions in the observation program depend on the objectives of the study and on the characteristics of the social phenomenon being studied.
Organizational matters statistical observation include the definition of the subject, place, time, form and method of observation.
In statistical practice, two organizational forms of observation are used - reporting and special statistical survey.
Reporting is an organizational form in which observation units present information about their activities in the form of regulated forms.
The peculiarity of reporting is that it is mandatory, documented and legally confirmed by the signature of the manager.
An example of the second form of observation - a special statistical survey - is the conduct of population censuses.
Depending on the objectives of the statistical study and the nature of the phenomenon being studied, facts can be taken into account:
- systematically, constantly covering facts as they arise - this will be ongoing observation (reporting);
- regularly, but not constantly, but at certain intervals - this will be periodic observation (population census).
Rice. Forms, types and methods of statistical observation
From the point of view of completeness of coverage of facts, statistical observation can be continuous or incomplete. Continuous observation is a complete accounting of all units of the population being studied. Non-continuous observation is organized as taking into account a part of the population units, on the basis of which a generalizing characteristic of the entire population can be obtained. The types of non-continuous observation include: the main array method, selective observations, monographic descriptions.
When directly recording facts, information is obtained through personal accounting of units of the population: recalculation, weighing, measurement, etc.
The documentary method of collecting statistical information is based on systematic records in primary documents confirming a particular fact.
In some cases, to fill out statistical forms, they resort to a population survey, which can be carried out by expeditionary, questionnaire or correspondent methods.
Exist various ways formation of the sample population. This is, firstly, individual selection, including such varieties as random, mechanical, stratified, and, secondly, serial, or nested, selection.
2. Summary and grouping of statistical observation data
The material collected in the process of statistical observation requires certain processing, bringing disparate data together. Scientifically organized processing of observation materials (according to a pre-developed program), including, in addition to the mandatory control of collected data, systematization, grouping of materials, compilation of tables, obtaining results and derived indicators (averages, relative values), is called a summary in statistics.
The summary represents the second stage of the statistical study. The purpose of the summary is to obtain, on the basis of the summarized materials, generalized statistical indicators that reflect the essence of socio-economic phenomena and certain statistical patterns.
The statistical summary is carried out according to a program that must be developed even before collecting statistical data, almost simultaneously with the preparation of a plan and program for statistical observation. The summary program includes the identification of groups and subgroups; indicator systems; types of tables.
Grouping is the division of a population into groups that are homogeneous according to some characteristic. From the point of view of individual units of the population, grouping is the unification of individual units of the population into groups that are homogeneous according to some characteristics.
A stable delineation of objects is expressed by classification, which is based on the most essential features (for example, classification of sectors of the national economy, classification of fixed assets, etc.). Thus, classification is a legalized, generally accepted, normative grouping.
The grouping method is based on the following categories: grouping attribute, grouping interval and number of groups.
A grouping characteristic is a characteristic by which individual units of a population are combined into homogeneous groups.
The interval outlines the quantitative boundaries of the groups. As a rule, it represents the gap between the maximum and minimum values of a characteristic in a group. Intervals are:
equal, when the difference between the maximum and minimum values in each interval is the same;
unequal, when, for example, the width of the interval gradually increases, and the upper interval often does not close at all;
open, when there is only either an upper or a lower boundary;
closed when there are both lower and upper boundaries.
Determining the number of groups. Several conditions must be taken into account here:
a) the number of groups is determined by the level of fluctuation of the grouping characteristic. The more significant the variation of a trait, the more groups, other things being equal, there should be;
b) the number of groups should reflect the real structure of the population being studied;
c) selecting empty groups is not allowed. If the problem of empty groups still arises, unequal intervals are used when conducting structural groupings.
Types of groups:
When conducting a grouping, you have to solve a number of problems:
1) identification of a grouping characteristic;
2) determining the number of groups and the size of intervals;
3) if there are several grouping characteristics, a description of how they are combined with each other;
4) establishing indicators that should characterize groups, i.e. predicate grouping.
Statistical groupings and classifications pursue the goals of identifying qualitatively homogeneous populations, studying the structure of the population, and studying existing dependencies. Each of these goals corresponds to a special type of grouping: typological, structural, analytical (factorial).
Typological grouping solves the problem of identifying and characterizing socio-economic types (private subsets).
Structural makes it possible to describe the components of a set or the structure of types, as well as analyze structural changes.
Analytical (factorial) grouping allows one to evaluate the relationships between interacting characteristics.
Depending on the number of attributes underlying them, simple and multidimensional groupings are distinguished.
Grouping based on one characteristic is called simple.
Multidimensional grouping is performed according to two or more characteristics. A special case of a multidimensional grouping is a combinational grouping, based on two or more characteristics taken in interrelation, in combination.
Structural grouping is used to characterize the structure of the aggregate and the structure of shifts.
Structural is a grouping in which the types of phenomena identified through technological grouping, homogeneous aggregates, are divided into groups that characterize their structure according to some varying characteristic. For example, grouping the population by average per capita income. Analysis of structural groupings taken over a number of periods or points in time shows changes in the structure of the phenomena being studied, that is, structural shifts. Changes in the structure of social phenomena reflect the most important patterns of their development.
The group size indicator is represented either by frequency (the number of units in each group) or frequency (the proportion of each group).
Among simple groupings, distribution rows are especially distinguished.
A distribution series is a grouping in which one indicator is used to characterize groups (ordered by attribute value) - the number of the group. In other words, this is a series of numbers showing how units of a certain population are distributed according to the characteristic being studied.
Series constructed according to an attribute are called attribute distribution series.
Distribution series constructed on a quantitative basis are called variation series.
An example of attribute series is the distribution of the population by gender, employment, nationality, profession, etc.
An example of a variational series of distributions is the distribution of the population by age, workers by length of service, wages, etc.
Variational distribution series consist of two elements of variants and frequencies.
Variants are the numerical values of a quantitative characteristic in a distribution series; they can be positive and negative, absolute and relative.
Frequencies are the numbers of individual variants or each group of a variation series. The sum of all frequencies is called the volume of the population and determines the number of elements of the entire population.
Variation series, depending on the nature of the variation, are divided into discrete and interval.
3.Statistical tables and graphs
Statistical tables are a means of visually expressing research results.
Practice has developed certain requirements for the compilation and design of tables.
1. The table should be as short as possible.
2. Each table must have a detailed name, from which it becomes known:
a) what range of issues the table sets out and illustrates;
b) what are geographical boundaries the presented statistical population;
c) for what period of time to which they relate;
d) what are the units of measurement (if they are the same for all table cells). If the units of measurement are not the same, then in the top or side headings it is necessary to indicate in which units the statistical data are presented (tons, pieces, rubles, etc.).
3. The table may be accompanied by notes that indicate the sources of data, reveal the content of the indicators in more detail, and provide other explanations, as well as reservations if the table contains data obtained as a result of calculations.
4. When designing tables, the following are usually used: symbols: dash sign (-) – when the phenomenon is absent; x – if the phenomenon has no meaningful content; ellipsis (...) – when there is no information about its size (or the entry “No information” is made). If information is available, but the numerical value is less than the accuracy accepted in the table, it is expressed as a fraction (0.0).
Rounded numbers are given in the table with the same degree of accuracy (up to 0.1; up to 0.01, etc.). If the table shows growth percentages, then in many cases it is advisable to replace percentages of 300 or more with ratios in times. For example, write not “1000%”, but “10.0 times”.
The use of graphs to present statistical indicators makes it possible to give the latter clarity and expressiveness, to facilitate their perception, and in many cases helps to understand the essence of the phenomenon being studied, its patterns and features, to see the trends in its development, the relationship of indicators characterizing it.
Statistical graphs can be classified according to different criteria: purpose (content), method of construction and the nature of the graphic image.
According to content or purpose, one can distinguish graphs of comparison in space, graphs of various relative values (structure, dynamics, etc.), graphs of variation series, graphs of location across the territory, graphs of interrelated indicators. Combinations of these graphs are also possible, for example, a graphical representation of variation in dynamics or the dynamics of interrelated indicators, etc.
According to the method of constructing, graphs can be divided into diagrams, cartograms and cartograms.
According to the nature of the graphic image, graphs are divided into dot, linear, planar (bar, hourly, square, circular, sector, curly) and volumetric.
