How many types of scientific research are there? Types and Types of Research Works and Projects

How to conduct scientific research

Organization of research activities 1.1 The concept of scientific research. Types of research The form of existence and development of science is scientific research. In Art. 2 of the Federal Law of the Russian Federation of August 23, 1996 “On Science and State Scientific and Technical Policy” gives the following definition: scientific (research) activities – is an activity aimed at obtaining and applying new knowledge. In general, scientific research usually refers to activities aimed at a comprehensive study of an object, process or phenomenon, their structure and connections, as well as obtaining and implementing results useful for humans into practice. Any scientific research must have its own subject and object, which define the area of ​​research. Object scientific research is a material or ideal system, and as subject may be the structure of this system, patterns of interaction and development of its elements, etc. Scientific research is purposeful, so each researcher must clearly formulate the purpose of his research. The purpose of scientific research is the projected result of research work. This can be a comprehensive study of any process or phenomenon, connections and relationships using the principles and methods of cognition developed in science, as well as obtaining and implementing results useful for humans into practice. Scientific research is classified on various grounds. By source of funding differentiate

budgetary scientific research,

economic contracts

and unfunded.

Budgetary studies are financed from the budget of the Russian Federation or the budgets of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Economic contract research is financed by customer organizations under economic contracts. Unfunded research can be carried out on the initiative of the scientist, under the individual plan of the teacher. In regulations on science, scientific research is divided according to intended purpose on

fundamental,

applied.

The Federal Law of August 23, 1996 “On Science and State Scientific and Technical Policy” defines the concepts of fundamental and applied scientific research. Basic scientific research is an experimental or theoretical activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the basic laws of the structure, functioning and development of man, society, and the natural environment. For example, research on the patterns of formation and functioning of the rule of law or on global, regional and Russian economic trends can be considered fundamental. Applied scientific research – this is research aimed primarily at applying new knowledge to achieve practical goals and solve specific problems. In other words, they are aimed at solving problems of use scientific knowledge, obtained as a result of fundamental research, in the practical activities of people. For example, works on methods for evaluating investment projects depending on their types or work related to marketing research can be considered as applied. Search engines are called scientific research aimed at determining the prospects of working on a topic and finding ways to solve scientific problems. Development refers to research that is aimed at implementing the results of specific fundamental and applied research into practice. By deadlines scientific research can be divided into

long-term

short-term

and express research.

Depending on the forms and methods of research, some authors distinguish experimental, methodological, descriptive, experimental-analytical, historical-biographical research and mixed-type research. In the theory of knowledge there are two levels of research : theoretical and empirical. Theoretical level research is characterized by the predominance of logical methods of cognition. At this level, the obtained facts are examined and processed using logical concepts, inferences, laws and other forms of thinking. Here the objects under study are mentally analyzed, generalized, their essence, internal connections, and laws of development are comprehended. At this level, cognition through the senses (empirics) may be present, but it is subordinate. The structural components of theoretical knowledge are problem, hypothesis and theory. Problem is a complex theoretical or practical problem, the methods for solving which are unknown or not fully known. There are undeveloped problems (pre-problems) and developed ones. Undeveloped problems are characterized by the following features: 1) they arose on the basis of a certain theory, concept; 2) these are difficult, non-standard tasks; 3) their solution is aimed at eliminating the contradiction that has arisen in knowledge; 4) ways to solve the problem are not known. Developed problems have more or less specific instructions on how to solve them. Hypothesis there is an assumption that requires verification and proof about the cause that causes a certain effect, about the structure of the objects under study and the nature of the internal and external connections of the structural elements. A scientific hypothesis must meet the following requirements: 1) relevance, i.e. relevance to the facts on which it relies; 2) testability by experience, comparability with observational or experimental data (with the exception of untestable hypotheses); 3) compatibility with existing scientific knowledge; 4) possessing explanatory power, i.e. from the hypothesis a certain number of facts and consequences confirming it must be deduced. The hypothesis from which the largest number of facts is derived will have greater explanatory power; 5) simplicity, i.e. it should not contain any arbitrary assumptions or subjectivist layers. There are descriptive, explanatory and predictive hypotheses. A descriptive hypothesis is an assumption about the essential properties of objects, the nature of the connections between the individual elements of the object being studied. An explanatory hypothesis is an assumption about cause-and-effect relationships. A predictive hypothesis is an assumption about the trends and patterns of development of the object of study. Theory is a logically organized knowledge, a conceptual system of knowledge that adequately and holistically reflects a certain area of ​​reality. It has the following properties: 1. Theory is one of the forms of rational mental activity. 2. Theory is a holistic system of reliable knowledge. 3. It not only describes a set of facts, but also explains them, i.e. reveals the origin and development of phenomena and processes, their internal and external connections, causal and other dependencies, etc. 4. All provisions and conclusions contained in the theory are justified and proven. Theories are classified according to the subject of research. On this basis, social, mathematical, physical, chemical, psychological, economic and other theories are distinguished. There are other classifications of theories. In modern scientific methodology, the following structural elements of the theory are distinguished: 1) initial foundations (concepts, laws, axioms, principles, etc.); 2) an idealized object, i.e. a theoretical model of some part of reality, essential properties and connections of the phenomena and objects being studied; 3) the logic of the theory - a set of certain rules and methods of proof; 4) philosophical attitudes and social values; 5) a set of laws and regulations derived as consequences from this theory. The structure of a theory is formed by concepts, judgments, laws, scientific provisions, teachings, ideas and other elements. Concept is a thought that reflects the essential and necessary characteristics of a certain set of objects or phenomena. Category– a general, fundamental concept that reflects the most essential properties and relationships of objects and phenomena. Categories can be philosophical, general scientific, or related to a particular branch of science. Examples of categories in legal sciences: law, offense, legal responsibility, state, political system, crime. ^ Scientific term is a word or combination of words denoting a concept used in science. The set of concepts (terms) that are used in a certain science forms it conceptual apparatus. Judgment is a thought in which something is affirmed or denied. Principle- this is the guiding idea, the main starting point of the theory. The principles are theoretical and methodological. At the same time, one cannot fail to take into account the methodological principles of dialectical materialism: treat reality as an objective reality; distinguish essential features of the object under study from secondary ones; consider objects and phenomena in continuous change, etc. Axiom- this is a provision that is initial, unprovable and from which other provisions are derived according to established rules. For example, at present it is necessary to recognize as axiomatic the statements that there is no crime without an indication of it in the law, ignorance of the law does not exempt from responsibility for its violation, the accused is not obliged to prove his innocence. Law– this is an objective, essential, internal, necessary and stable connection between phenomena and processes. Laws can be classified on various grounds. Thus, according to the main spheres of reality, we can distinguish the laws of nature, society, thinking and knowledge; according to the scope of action - general, general and particular. Pattern– this is: 1) the totality of the action of many laws; 2) a system of essential, necessary general connections, each of which constitutes a separate law. Thus, there are certain patterns in the movement of crime on a global scale: 1) its absolute and relative growth; 2) lagging social control over it. Position– a scientific statement, a formulated thought. An example of a scientific position is the statement that a rule of law consists of three elements: hypothesis, disposition and sanction. ^ Idea– this is: 1) a new intuitive explanation of an event or phenomenon; 2) the defining core position in the theory. Concept is a system of theoretical views united by a scientific idea (scientific ideas). Theoretical concepts determine the existence and content of many legal norms and institutions. The empirical level of research is characterized by the predominance of sensory cognition (the study of the external world through the senses). At this level, forms of theoretical knowledge are present, but have a subordinate meaning. The interaction between the empirical and theoretical levels of research is that: 1) a set of facts constitutes the practical basis of a theory or hypothesis; 2) facts can confirm or refute a theory; 3) a scientific fact is always permeated with theory, since it cannot be formulated without a system of concepts, interpreted without theoretical ideas; 4) empirical research in modern science is predetermined and guided by theory. The structure of the empirical level of research consists of facts, empirical generalizations and laws (dependencies). The concept " fact"is used in several meanings: 1) an objective event, a result related to objective reality (a fact of reality) or to the sphere of consciousness and cognition (a fact of consciousness); 2) knowledge about any event, phenomenon, the reliability of which has been proven (truth); 3) a sentence that captures the knowledge obtained through observations and experiments. ^ Empirical summary is a system of certain scientific facts. For example, as a result of studying criminal cases of a certain category and generalizing investigative and judicial practice, it is possible to identify typical mistakes allowed by the courts when qualifying crimes and imposing criminal penalties on the perpetrators. ^ Empirical laws reflect regularity in phenomena, stability in the relationships between observed phenomena. These laws are not theoretical knowledge. Unlike theoretical laws, which reveal the essential connections of reality, empirical laws reflect a more superficial level of dependencies. ^ 1. 2 Stages of research work For scientific research to be successful, it must be properly organized, planned and carried out in a certain sequence. These plans and sequence of actions depend on the type, object and goals of scientific research. So, if it is carried out on technical topics, then first the main pre-planning document is developed - a feasibility study, and then theoretical and experimental research is carried out, a scientific and technical report is compiled and the results of the work are introduced into production. In socio-legal research there are five stages: 1) preparation of the program; 2) sociological observation (collection of empirical information); 3) processing and summarizing the received data; 4) scientific analysis and explanation of data; 5) statement of results. In relation to students' work on economic topics, the following successive stages of their implementation can be outlined: 1) preparatory; 2) conducting theoretical and empirical research; 3) work on the manuscript and its design; 4) implementation of the results of scientific research. It seems necessary to first give a general description of each stage of research work, and then consider in more detail those of them that have great importance for carrying out scientific research by students. ^ Preparatory (first) stage includes: choosing a topic; justification for the need to conduct research on it; determination of hypotheses, goals and objectives of the study; developing a research plan or program; preparation of research tools (instruments). First, the topic of scientific research is formulated and the reasons for its development are justified. By preliminary familiarization with the literature and materials of previously conducted research, it becomes clear to what extent the issues of the topic have been studied and what are the results obtained. Particular attention should be paid to questions for which there are no answers at all or they are insufficient. A list of regulations, domestic and foreign literature is compiled; when writing dissertation research, a list of dissertation topics is compiled, and if it is impossible to view the entire text of the dissertation, in some cases you can limit yourself to studying abstracts of dissertations. A research methodology is being developed. Research tools are prepared in the form of questionnaires, questionnaires, interview forms, observation programs, etc. The more detailed process of performing research in accordance with GOST 15.101-98 is given in Appendix A. To check their suitability, pilot studies can be carried out. ^ Research (second) stage consists of a systematic study of literature on the topic, statistical information and archival materials; conducting theoretical and empirical research, including collecting socio-economic and statistical information, production practice materials; processing, summarizing and analyzing the obtained data; explaining new scientific facts, arguing and formulating provisions, conclusions and practical recommendations and proposals. ^ Third stage includes: determination of the composition (construction, internal structure) of the work; clarification of the title, chapter titles and paragraphs; preparation of the draft manuscript and its editing; design of the text, including a list of references and applications. ^ Fourth stage consists of implementing research results into practice and author’s support of implemented developments. Scientific research does not always end at this stage, but sometimes students’ scientific works (for example, theses) and the results of dissertation research are recommended for implementation in the practical activities of governing bodies and in the educational process. ^ 1.3 Method and methodology of scientific research Scientific research method is a way of understanding objective reality. A method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, and operations. Depending on the content of the objects being studied, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished. Research methods are classified according to branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc. Depending on the level of knowledge, methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels are distinguished. TO empirical methods include

observation,

description,

comparison,

measurement, measurement

questionnaire survey,

interview,

testing, experiment,

modeling, etc.

TO theoretical level methods are considered

axiomatic,

hypothetical (hypothetico-deductive),

formalization

abstraction,

general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.

Methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. Some scientists include the method of system analysis at this level, while others include it among general logical methods. Depending on the scope of application and degree of generality, methods are distinguished: 1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge; 2) general scientific ones, which can be used in the humanities, natural and technical sciences; 3) private – for related sciences; 4) special - for a specific science, field of scientific knowledge. The concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research should be distinguished from the concept of method under consideration. Under research technique understand a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and by research procedure– a certain sequence of actions, a way of organizing research. Methodology is a set of ways and techniques of cognition. For example, a methodology for assessing the effectiveness of investments is understood as a set of rules, principles, formulas and techniques that allow, under certain restrictions, to correctly calculate the effectiveness of investment projects. Any scientific research is carried out using certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology th. However, the concept of “methodology” in the literature is used in two meanings: 1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.); 2) the doctrine of the scientific method of knowledge. The following levels of methodology are distinguished: 1. General methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition. 2. Particular methodology of scientific research for a group of related economic sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of knowledge, for example, economic relations in the production process. 3. Methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, private and special methods of knowledge, for example, the methodology of political economy, management methodology. ^ 1.3.1 Philosophical and general scientific methods of scientific research Among universal (philosophical) methods the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems. Thus, the dialectical method in K. Marx was combined with materialism, and in G.V.F. Hegel - with idealism. When studying objects and phenomena, dialectics recommends proceeding from the following principles: 1. Consider the objects being studied in the light of dialectical laws: a) unity and struggle of opposites; b) the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones; c) negation of negation. 2. Describe, explain and predict the phenomena and processes being studied, based on philosophical categories: general, special and individual; content and form; entities and phenomena; possibilities and reality; necessary and accidental; causes and consequences. 3. Treat the object of research as an objective reality. 4. Consider the objects and phenomena under study: a) comprehensively; b) in universal connection and interdependence; c) in continuous change and development; d) specifically historically. 5. Test the acquired knowledge in practice. All general scientific methods For analysis, it is advisable to divide them into three groups: general logical, theoretical and empirical. ^ By general logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy. Analysis– this is the dismemberment, decomposition of the object of study into its component parts. It underlies the analytical research method. Types of analysis are classification and periodization. For example, the analysis method is used in the study and classification of costs, in the formation of sources of profit, etc. Synthesis– this is the connection of individual sides, parts of the object of study into a single whole. Thus, the combination of all stages of creation and commercial sale of products was combined into the relatively new discipline “Innovation Management”. Induction- this is the movement of thought (cognition) from facts, individual cases to the general situation. Inductive inferences “suggest” an idea, a general idea. For example, the induction method is used in jurisprudence to establish causal relationships between phenomena, actions and consequences. Deduction – this is the derivation of an individual, particular from any general position; the movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. Through deductive reasoning, a certain thought is “derived” from other thoughts. Analogy– this is a way of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena based on the fact that they are similar to others; reasoning in which, from the similarity of the objects under study in some characteristics, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other characteristics. For example, in jurisprudence, gaps in legislation can be filled by applying the law by analogy. An analogy of law is the application to a social relationship that is not regulated by a rule of law of a rule of law that regulates a similar relationship. ^ 1.3.2 Theoretical level methods To methods theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of system analysis. ^ Axiomatic method – a method of research that consists in the fact that some statements (axioms, postulates) are accepted without proof and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them. ^ Hypothetical method – a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of some phenomenon or object. A variation of this method is the hypothetico-deductive method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses from which statements about empirical facts are derived. The structure of the hypothetico-deductive method includes: 1) making conjectures (assumptions) about the causes and patterns of the phenomena and objects being studied; 2) selection from a set of guesses the most probable, plausible; 3) deducing a consequence (conclusion) from a selected assumption (premise) using deduction; 4) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis. Formalization– display of a phenomenon or object in the symbolic form of any artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and the study of this phenomenon or object through operations with the corresponding signs. The use of artificial formalized language in scientific research allows us to eliminate such shortcomings of natural language as ambiguity, inaccuracy, and uncertainty. When formalizing, instead of reasoning about the objects of research, they operate with signs (formulas). By operations with formulas of artificial languages, one can obtain new formulas and prove the truth of any proposition. Formalization is the basis for algorithmization and programming, without which computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do. Abstraction– mental abstraction from some properties and relationships of the subject being studied and highlighting the properties and relationships that interest the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and connections of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and connections. Types of abstraction: identification, i.e. highlighting the common properties and relationships of the objects being studied, establishing what is identical in them, abstracting from the differences between them, combining objects into a special class; isolation, i.e. highlighting some properties and relationships that are considered as independent subjects of research. The theory also distinguishes other types of abstraction: potential feasibility, actual infinity. An example of abstraction is the process of formation of economic concepts. These concepts are meaningful scientific abstractions. They do not reflect all the essential properties of economic phenomena and contain only those characteristics that are significant in a certain respect. Generalization– establishment of general properties and relationships of objects and phenomena; definition of a general concept that reflects the essential, basic characteristics of objects or phenomena of a given class. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in highlighting not essential, but any characteristics of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of the general, the particular and the individual. ^ Historical method consists in identifying historical facts and, on this basis, in such a mental reconstruction of the historical process in which the logic of its movement is revealed. It involves studying the emergence and development of research objects in chronological order. ^ Ascent from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge is that the researcher first finds the main connection of the subject (phenomenon) being studied, then, tracing how it changes under different conditions, discovers new connections and in this way reflects its essence in its entirety. ^ System method consists in the study of a system (i.e. a certain set of material or ideal objects), the connections of its components and their connections with the external environment. At the same time, it turns out that these relationships and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are absent in its constituent objects. The use of this method allowed scientists to identify the following legal systems of the world: Anglo-Saxon, Romano-Germanic, socialist, religious, customary law. Considering the activities of an organization as a system (with subsystems of personnel management, financial management, quality management, etc.) located in a more general economic system, researchers establish the peculiarities of the functioning of this system or project general, well-known patterns, taking into account the characteristics of this system. ^ 1.3.3 Empirical Level Methods TO empirical methods include: observation, description, counting, measurement, comparison, experiment, modeling. Observation is a way of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena using the senses. As a result of observation, the researcher gains knowledge about the external properties and relationships of objects and phenomena. As a method of scientific research, observation is used, for example, to collect sociological information or as a method for establishing labor standards (known, in particular, as “working day photography”). If the observation was carried out in a natural setting, then it is called field, and if the conditions environment, the situation was specially created by the researcher, then it will be considered laboratory. The results of observation can be recorded in protocols, diaries, cards, on film and in other ways. Description– this is the recording of signs of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description can be: 1) direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the characteristics of the object; 2) indirect, when the researcher notes the characteristics of the object that were perceived by other persons (for example, the characteristics of a UFO). Check– this is the determination of quantitative relationships between objects of study or parameters characterizing their properties. The quantitative method is widely used in economic statistics to study the performance of individual organizations and economic systems. Measurement- this is the determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with a standard. In quality management, measurements are used to determine the quantitative characteristics of the quality of objects. These issues are dealt with by a special field of science – qualimetry. Comparison- this is a comparison of features inherent in two or more objects, establishing differences between them or finding commonality in them. In scientific research, this method is used, for example, to compare economic systems various states. This method is based on the study, comparison of similar objects, identifying similarities and differences in them, advantages and disadvantages. In this way, it is possible to solve practical problems of improving state institutions, domestic legislation and the practice of its application. Experiment– this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the put forward hypothesis is tested. Experiments can be classified on various grounds: by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.; according to the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object - conventional (experimental tools directly interact with the object under study) and model (the model replaces the research object). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real). The above classification is not exhaustive. Modeling- this is gaining knowledge about the object of research with the help of its substitutes - an analogue, a model. A model is understood as a mentally represented or materially existing analogue of an object. Based on the similarity between the model and the simulated object, conclusions about it are transferred by analogy to this object. In the theory of modeling, there are: 1) ideal (mental, symbolic) models, for example, in the form of drawings, notes, signs, mathematical interpretation; 2) material (full-scale, real) models, for example, models, dummies, analogue objects for experiments during examinations, reconstruction of a person’s external appearance using the method of M.M. Gerasimova. Economic-mathematical modeling is widely used in various economic studies to describe various kinds of processes, patterns, and relationships. Summarized information about research methods is presented in Table 1. Table 1 - Main research methods used in economics

Information about the types of scientific research methods is currently relevant not only for those who work in the field of theoretical science. Often, methods developed for conducting research are used by teachers, trainers, and specialists from various institutions, whose work often requires them to come into contact with other people and transfer their accumulated knowledge to them. It is no secret that a creative approach to any given task always increases the likelihood of successfully solving a problem, and yet knowledge of the types and results of scientific research allows you not only to rely on your natural talents, but also on the experience accumulated by other people.

Research: what are there?

When arguing for the accuracy of a solution to a certain question, a person will give more weight to his words, the better he can explain how he came to the answer. This means that the correct manipulation of known types of scientific research activities allows you to achieve your goal, at the same time creating in the eyes of others the image of not just a person capable of solving a problem, but also able to work on it using the most effective approaches.

Speaking of, the following types are distinguished:

• methodological;
• scientific methodological;
• scientific research.

Science is not easy

Scientificity is a parameter for compliance with which it is necessary to check not the research as such, but the work. They put forward a number of demands; if the process of working on the research corresponds to them, we can talk about the scientific nature of what was done. Thus, considering the concept of science and types of scientific research, one cannot help but admit that pedagogical experience and its generalization are also scientific details. At the same time, it is taken into account that methodological work and scientific methodological - this is, first of all, the specificity of what was done, which allows us to say that the research was aimed primarily at finding answers to questions related to methodology (for example, education, training).

At the same time, it is important to take into account that methodological work presupposes novelty and the application of methodologies characteristic of this work. But for scientific methods, this condition will no longer be mandatory. Using an example, the classification of types of scientific research can be illustrated as follows: suppose a study is carried out pedagogical work. If the researcher simply gets acquainted with the experience of specialists, generalizes it and analyzes it, then this is methodological work. But generalization, associated with the search for patterns, which makes it possible to establish something new and then confirm it in the course of a correctly conducted experiment, is already classified as a scientific and methodological type of scientific and practical research.

Terminology is important!

When considering the types of scientific research, it is important to formulate what can be called such research. As can be seen from the theoretical basis, the term is applied to the process of research accompanied by experimentation. At the same time, the theory is conceptualized and tested, which leads to an increase in the volume of scientific knowledge of society.

Scientific research can be fundamental, that is, aimed at obtaining information for which there are (quite possibly) no real areas of application, as well as applied, that is, those that are aimed at producing information that allows achieving some pre-formulated goal. Such research is aimed at solving a specific problem. Also, the main types of scientific research include exploratory investigations and developments. The first involves assessing the level of prospects of the selected topic, coupled with the search for options for solving the problem, and the second term is applied to such research, which allows one to practically apply one or another work from the previously described categories of applied, fundamental.

How about more details?

If we consider the main types of scientific research more carefully, we will have to pay attention, in particular, to the following fact: knowledge of reality is possible primarily through fundamental research, at the same time, this method does not involve taking into account the possibility of applying the acquired knowledge in practice. But the applied option is an option that, on the contrary, must be applied as part of solving the problem posed to researchers in order to achieve its positive solution.

Monodisciplinary types of scientific research and stages of scientific research are distinguished by strictly defined boundaries: you can only resort to what is available within the framework of a particular science. But interdisciplinary ones are those that allow specialists from different areas join forces to find optimal option answer. As practice shows, the most complex types of scientific research objects require the collaboration of representatives of different disciplines; only in this case can one count on success. A good example is genetics, since the scientific research inherent in it can only be achieved by combining the efforts of different specialists. Another good example- psychophysiology, ethnopsychology, sociology.

This is all?

When considering their characteristics, attention should also be paid to two more important categories: complex and single-factor. The first term presupposes a variant of studying a chosen area when the researcher applies a pre-selected system of ways of knowing. This makes it possible to cover the study area as widely as possible, using as many parameters as is, in principle, possible and reasonable. At the same time, it is important to maintain a balance between the maximum permissible and optimal, otherwise the created system will turn out to be too complex even for a group of specialists, and it will simply not be possible to achieve truly useful results.

Single-factor scientific research, types of scientific research, and their characteristics are determined by the peculiarity of the analytical approach inherent in this method. It is assumed that the researcher sets himself the task of determining one aspect of reality and puts all his efforts into achieving his plan. At the same time, the researcher himself has the right to choose which aspect is the most significant for him, and in an effort to achieve it, comprehend the chosen area. However, it must be admitted that all of the above groups are disputed by one or another representative of the scientific community. Despite a fairly extensive base on the theorization of science and applicable terminology, the discrepancies are quite significant both between representatives of different disciplines and within one direction.

Subjects of scientific activity

When considering types of scientific and pedagogical research (as well as other categories), it is always important to pay attention not only to the process itself, but also to the subject at its center. Moreover, in the philosophy of science, the term “subject” can be applied to one of several categories of persons:

• scientist making a discovery;
• community of scientists producing knowledge;
• humanity, formed by numerous nationalities, each of which produces information, ideas, culture.

Subject: Important Features

Considering subjects different types scientific and pedagogical research (and not only), it should be noted that they are characterized by the presence of training in the chosen field of activity. As a rule, these are persons who have a supply of information applicable in the course of the research being conducted. The subject can successfully assimilate the information generated during the research and successfully apply the methodology for obtaining new knowledge as productively as possible. In this case, the production method and the result of the process become his property. The subject of scientific activity is based on the values, worldview, ethics inherent to him, and also focuses on the goals set at the beginning of the work and characteristic of his chosen field. In addition, the subject always belongs to his era, which gives him a number of specific attributes.

The object of knowledge is not only epistemological, but living - it is a person with character, with unique characteristics of temperament, will and character. She has interests, she is characterized by passions. At the same time, many try to apply the term “subject of consciousness” to a certain logical object that is active from the point of view of intellectuality. The subject and the scientific activity practiced by him are adequately perceived taking into account the characteristics of the era and locality in which the person (community) exists. Scientific knowledge is not only the subject’s conscious perception of a chosen object, it is also the peculiarities of perception of one’s work and oneself. The subject of scientific research necessarily thinks about the techniques, methods, and traditions used.

Subjects and types of scientific research

It so happened that at different stages of scientific development the subjects were quite different from each other, on the basis of which three groups were identified - classic, non-classical, post-non-classical. associated with the “epistemological Robinson” type, which does not have social, cultural connections, specific characteristics and features. Such a subject independently cognizes the object in its pure form, limiting, if possible, outside influence. Classical science is characterized by objective knowledge elevated to the form of absolutism.

As a type of scientific research, it assumes that absolute knowledge does not exist. Any information is relative, since it is subjectively perceived by the researcher, and in addition, it is used to solve a specific problem, and therefore is instrumental. At the same time, the subject of knowledge is represented as an active being, interested in knowledge, capable of studying different aspects of the selected object. Moreover, the subject to some extent creates the object. A group of researchers usually acts as a subject in a non-classical type of scientific research.

Post-non-classical science

Within this type of approach to scientific research, the subject is the same person as in non-classical science, although there are some specific features. IN last years There are active processes of globalization of scientific activity, which leaves a significant imprint on the subject of activity. In this case, the subject ceases to belong to a specific nation; it is customary to refer to it as an international scientific ethnos - this term was proposed to be introduced by the researcher Merton. The main task of the subject is the issues facing modern society.

Cognition is important!

The reality around a person is a complex system with numerous elements and relationships between them. Understanding such a system, including the connections, relationships, adjustments, and progress present in it, is a problem facing science. A person first forms a holistic picture of the object in question, possessing a small amount of information about the internal structure, and over time reveals the essence. Thus, scientific knowledge presupposes the specification of the object under consideration in order to form a correct idea.

Cognition allows you to discover important things step by step internal features the object being studied, the specifics of the interaction of the elements of the system being studied with each other. At the same time, scientific knowledge is possible only when the problem is divided into parts - in practice or figuratively, each part is studied separately, formulating properties, characteristics, relationships, connections. This allows you to determine what role this or that element plays in the whole system. After solving the primary cognitive task, they begin to combine the information received into a single whole. Based on the results, a specific idea is formed, based on accurate data about the internal structure of the object being studied. Analysis and synthesis are two fairly actively used methods of scientific knowledge that allow one to cope with such a task.

Analysis, synthesis

These are universal techniques with the opposite direction, through which cognition is realized. Analysis is usually called this form of information acquisition, during which an object from a single whole is divided into its component parts, relationships, features for subsequent careful, detailed study. Synthesis is a mental process during which previously identified elements are assembled back into a single whole, which allows us to form a general idea about the object in question.

Analysis and synthesis are usually divided into four groups: natural, practical, mental, meta-analysis (metasynthesis). Natural analysis assumes that an object is divided into elements, and synthesis is a combination in the process of forming a new object. In this case, only options that reflect realistically possible natural processes are taken into account. Practical analysis is the isolation of components, synthesis is the reduction into a whole. In this case, the possibilities known from practice are taken into account, despite the impossibility of realizing them in nature. Mental analysis involves isolating an essence that in practice and in a natural way is not possible to isolate from an object. Synthesis, on the contrary, combines the divided into a whole, despite the contradiction to natural laws. Finally, meta-analysis, synthesis is such processing of information that involves the study of the world as a whole, and not an objective subject.

Is this possible?

The described operations are real, first of all, due to the fact that material objects have a structure, which means that their elements can potentially be grouped in different ways. This makes it possible to combine and separate elements in a way that is convenient and beneficial for the researcher. Analysis and synthesis are the simplest, easiest, most understandable scientific techniques that allow us to understand the area under study. In fact, it is on them that the human ability to think is based.

Synthesis and analysis are also the most universal techniques, characteristic of all forms and levels of knowledge. A number of scientists believe that these two methods are autonomous cognitive processes characteristic of human thinking. The dominant point of view says that synthesis and analysis are the activities of a person capable of thinking, not opposite to each other, but united, expressed through two paths.

Some features

Mental analysis is a specialized mechanism within which an object is placed in new connections with other objects, enters into relationships with them, which leads to knowledge of the qualities and properties inherent in the object being studied. Analysis is not simply the separation of a holistic phenomenon into elements, but the transformation of an object. In this case, synthesis becomes not just a combination of individual elements into a certain structural object, but a reconstruction of properties, for which specific manifestations of the object being studied are analyzed.

Analyticity and syntheticity presuppose a division based both on the isolation of the processes of synthesis and analysis, and on the characteristics of thought processes and forms. Scientific research involves an empirical approach, in which external features are examined, as well as a theoretical one, which allows us to identify the essence of the phenomenon being studied. Synthesis and analysis are currently methods that are closely related to a number of common operations that allow us to understand an object. Most often resort to abstraction, deductive, inductive methods knowledge, to generalization.

Reality, away!

Of course, the real scientific approach does not propose to abandon reality altogether, but to some extent abstraction has precisely this goal: the term describes a thought process during which some features of a phenomenon are discarded, and attention is focused only on those relationships and qualities that attract the researcher solving the problem facing him.

Abstracting activity makes it possible to form abstractions that include categories, concepts, and complex systems. Abstraction is a two-stage operation, during which properties acquire (from the researcher’s point of view) independence, and the relationships that attracted the attention of the subject of scientific research are distinguished from others.

Everything is interconnected

As has long been established scientifically, the objects present in our reality are characterized by an infinite number of relationships, connections, and features. Some parameters have a certain similarity or connection with each other, others are independent and not similar to one another. Cognition and the practical activity of a scientific subject make it possible to identify the independence of a certain quality and identify truly important connections from the point of view of the task assigned to the researcher. First of all, attention is paid to those relationships that make it possible to realize the essence of the object and reveal it to the observer.

Isolation is the process of designating relationships and elements with specialized signs that allow them to be fixed in the mind of the observer. That is, in fact, abstraction is a cognitive scientific method that is fundamental to the scientific at any level: theoretical, empirical.

I wrote this article while working in a state-owned enterprise of a scientific and production nature. This article aims to summarize the current state and structure research work RF, indicate weaknesses and propose solutions to optimize the organization of science development on a national scale.

1 Current status of the issue

1.1 Implementation of research work today

Scientific research is the source of technologies, materials and mechanisms that make it possible to create products best quality, lower cost, create methods of treating diseases, fight natural disasters, etc.

However, doing science is a great luxury, since the likelihood of obtaining a practical result from the results of research is very small, and the cost of research can reach colossal amounts due to the need for experimental equipment and raw materials. Thus, only a few commercial companies can afford to maintain their own research department.

The overwhelming majority of scientific research is financed by the State through various funds (RFBR, fund of the Ministry of Education, etc.) and targeted industry programs (Space Program, defense industry development program, etc.).

1.2 What is a scientific work

During the entire existence of disputes over whether mathematics is a science, whether literature, history or art criticism is a science, many different definitions of the term Science have been formulated. From the point of view of the authors of this article, the most logical definition is K. Popper, according to which a thought is scientific if it goes through three stages:

1) Statement of the question;
2) Formulation of theory;
3) Conducting an experiment that confirms or disproves the theory.

This definition is functional from the point of view of the state, which is the main source of funding for scientific work and requiring maximum efficiency of money spent. If the work has passed the three specified stages, then the work report allows you to:

Clearly see what problem the research work is aimed at solving (under the item “Formulation of the question”);
- use a theory or analytical model that was confirmed during a verification experiment (points “Formulation of a theory” and “Conducting an experiment”) in other works and research, while saving money on local experiments;
- exclude a theory and model refuted during confirmatory experiments when analyzing risks;
- use information about the results of the experiment (item “Conducting an experiment”) when testing other theories and hypotheses, saving money on conducting duplicate experiments.

In practice, in our time, funding is received by scientific research work (R&D), in which there may not be any talk about putting forward and, even more so, testing any theories. Such research can be aimed at systematizing knowledge, developing research methods, studying the properties of materials and the features of technologies. Such research projects may have fundamentally different results. Let's try to classify the results that research work can bring:

Reference result. When research work has produced data on specific procedures or materials. For example, the reference result is the values ​​of the physical and mechanical characteristics of a material or the quality characteristics of a part obtained under certain technological parameters;
- scientific result. When, as a result of research work, a theory was confirmed or refuted. The theory can be in the form of a derived formula or mathematical models that allow one to obtain analytical results with a high degree of convergence with real experiment;
- methodological result. When, as a result of research, optimal methods for conducting research, experiments, and performing work were derived. Optimal techniques can be developed as a secondary product in the development of rational methods for confirming the theory;

1.3 Features of research work today

Duplication of research results. Due to the fact that the formation of topics and directions in different funds and agencies is carried out independently of each other, duplication of work often occurs. What we are talking about is both the duplication of work performed and the duplication of research results. There may also be duplication of work performed with work performed during the existence of the USSR, when a large number of scientific works were carried out.

Difficulty in accessing research results. The research results are documented in technical reports, acts and other reporting documentation, which, as a rule, is stored in printed form on paper in the archives of the customer and the contractor. To obtain this or that report, it is necessary to carry out lengthy correspondence with the executor or customer of the report, but, more importantly, information that this or that report exists in most cases is almost impossible to find. Scientific publications based on research results in specialized journals are not always published, and the accumulated number of studies and a wide range of different publications makes searching for data not published on the Internet incredibly difficult.

Lack of regular funding for search experiments. To create a prototype of innovative technology or development new technology(including within the framework of R&D), the performing enterprise must have research results confirming the possibility of realizing a new effect. However, research also requires funding, which must be justified and supported by preliminary experiments. However, scientific departments of universities, scientific institutes and research enterprises do not have regular funding for conducting preliminary and exploratory experiments, as a result of which topics for putting forward new works have to be drawn from the literature, incl. foreign. Consequently, work initiated in this way will always be behind similar foreign developments.

Low interaction between scientific enterprises. Low interaction between universities and scientific enterprises is due to the fact that organizations perceive each other not only as competitors, but also as potential customers - consumers of scientific products. The latter is due to the fact that scientific organizations so far, in the overwhelming majority, earn money not from the results of scientific activity, but from its implementation.

Use in the creation of new technologies and solutions from various branches of knowledge and sciences. The technologies and knowledge that could be obtained by working in only one direction are already known and developed, which can be said with great confidence. Today, new technologies are emerging at the intersection various methods and sciences, which requires the interaction of scientists from various fields, while active labor interaction between institutions is not observed.

2 Conditions for increasing the efficiency of scientific work

The system of conducting and organizing scientific work that exists in our time in the Russian Federation was borrowed from the USSR and from the moment of its formation Russian Federation has not undergone any special changes. Today, there are the following aspects of modernizing the system for carrying out scientific work:

Widespread use of personal computers and the Internet to access reference information;
- A large number of accumulated scientific reports existing in printed form;
- Using the achievements of various industries to create innovative technology;
- A developed market for materials and services, which makes it possible to implement almost any exploratory experiment at low cost, before opening a full-scale research project.

3 Optimization of the scientific research system

Based on point 2, the following measures can be taken to increase the efficiency of scientific work:

1) Creation of a unified form “Results of scientific research”, with mandatory publication on the Internet on a special portal after completing research work.
2) In the technical specifications (TOR) for carrying out research work, describe the result that should be obtained in the course of the work.
3) Introduce an optimized structure for the organization of research enterprises, based on the functioning of three divisions: a division for posing problems and questions, a division for putting forward scientific theories/hypotheses, and a division for implementing experiments (technical division).
4) Periodic allocation of funds to scientific organizations for the implementation of search experiments.

Below we will describe in more detail about each measure.

3.1 Creation of a unified form of research results

Given the large number of scientific reports accumulated in the Soviet and post-Soviet periods, the disunity of funds and research organizations, and the widespread use of the Internet, it is rational to create a single portal of scientific research results for a convenient and quick search for reports on completed work, which would be available both to employees of scientific and research organizations, and to officials checking the relevance of a particular work.

As indicated in paragraph 1.2, it is more rational to draw up the form of the result of scientific research in three points:

1) What problem was the research aimed at solving?
2) What hypothesis was put forward;
3) How the hypothesis was tested.

For each tested hypothesis, its own individual form (separate file) must be compiled, which, at the same time, is supplemented with information about the authors of the study and the organization that the authors represent, with keywords for quick and easy search. At the same time, the system will allow you to leave feedback from other scientists about the reliability of a particular study and evaluate the rating of authors and organizations. It is worth repeating that the forms of unconfirmed theories will also be of great importance, preventing other researchers from going down the wrong path.

The form of a reference study, in which not some hypothesis was tested, but “what we will get” (properties, effect) with given parameters (properties, modes, etc.), must have a distinctive form reflecting quantitative or qualitative characteristics were received.

When creating this system, an important role will be played by stimulating the replenishment of the database with reports already completed and preserved in printed form. In this case, formulas and models that are not confirmed by experimental research are not of interest to the system.

Supplementing such a base with studies of the classics of physics and mechanics will have great educational value.

3.2 Regulation of the results of research work in the technical specifications

The result of research work, as a rule, is a final report on research work, which, at the same time, has a rather arbitrary form and can include from 20 to 500 or more pages, which makes the analysis of such a report by other scientists and practitioners difficult.

If a unified system for generating research results is created, described in paragraph 3.1., then it is advisable in the technical specifications for research to present requirements for the results of work in accordance with the system standard in the form of:

Reference result in the form of characteristics, parameters, properties of a given object or process determined during work;
- A scientific result in the form of the results of testing a set of theories specified in the technical specifications or put forward by the contractor during the work on the problem (question) formulated in the technical specifications.

At the same time, it is not correct to set research methods and work organization as the ultimate goal of research. Methods and programs must be the result of the development of qualified this direction specialists within the framework of organizational work or work on standardization and systematization, or be a by-product of research work when achieving a scientific or reference result.

Also, the terms of reference for state-funded research must describe the obligation to publish research results in a single database.

3.3 Optimized structure of the research enterprise

Based on the rationality of compiling scientific thought from the three components question-theory-test, we can propose a structure for the organization of a scientific research organization, consisting of three main divisions: a division for searching for current problems, a division for formulating theories, and a division for experimental testing.

3.3.1 Division for searching for current tasks

This unit should be tasked with reviewing and constantly monitoring current issues in a given industry or area of ​​activity.

The division will have to carry out both analytical work, which consists of studying special literature, statistical research, applications from enterprises to carry out some kind of development, and creative work, which consists in independently searching for problems whose solution can bring commercial profit and benefit to society.

The department should include analytically minded people with experience in various fields.

3.3.2 Theory production division

This unit is responsible for developing solutions and theories that should provide answers to questions raised or offer solutions to voiced difficulties.

The department should include people with a broad outlook on various technologies, as well as great theoretical knowledge. Unit employees must constantly study scientific publications and articles.

The two main types of work that this unit must produce are the generation of new theories or solutions, and the analysis and testing of proposed solutions for duplication with already tested ones or for contradiction with already confirmed theories.

3.3.3 Experimental Verification Unit

This unit is responsible for verification: confirmation or refutation of incoming theories. The unit should include laboratory technicians qualified to work with existing laboratory equipment, as well as model production and metalworking masters capable of producing the necessary experimental equipment or equipment.

The unification of research organizations according to the above principle will contribute to their greater cooperation and interaction. Testing of a scientific theory formulated at one enterprise can be carried out in the experimental testing department of another organization that has the necessary laboratory equipment, according to a unified application.

3.4 Funding for exploratory experiments

Small but regular funding of scientific organizations under the article “Performing exploratory experiments”, allocated from the enterprise’s own funds or by the state, will create the necessary basis for the implementation of experimental ideas and preliminary testing of hypotheses.

In the course of low-cost exploratory experiments, erroneous hypotheses that may be included in an application for funding under a contract or grant are eliminated; As a result of the experience gained, new and original solutions are born that are used to create innovative technology.

conclusions

To increase the efficiency of spending on research and development work, it is recommended:

Creation of a unified database with research results presented in one form, including three sections: the question in the direction of which the theory was proposed, the theory or solution that was proposed and the result of testing the theory;
- regulation of the result of research in the technical specifications in terms of determining what type of result should be obtained: reference or scientific;
- bring the organization of scientific enterprises to a structure that includes three departments: a division for searching for current problems, a division for formulating theories, and a division for experimental verification;
- regularly finance search experiments.

Science differs from any other sphere of human activity in its goals, means, motives and conditions in which scientific work takes place. If the goal of science is to comprehend the truth, then its method is scientific research. Research, in contrast to spontaneous forms of knowledge of the surrounding world, is based on the norm of activity - the scientific method. Its implementation presupposes awareness and fixation of the purpose of the research, research tools (methodology, approaches, methods, techniques), and orientation of the research towards the reproducibility of the result.

Scientific research is the process of developing scientific knowledge, one of the types of cognitive activity of a scientist. Any scientific research is characterized by certain qualities: objectivity, reproducibility, evidence and accuracy.

As a rule, scientific research is carried out by scientists who are professionally prepared for this; They work in scientific institutions that have experimental and laboratory equipment. Each science uses its own methods and means to obtain new knowledge. To build scientific theories, scientists use the conceptual and categorical apparatus of science and master a system of scientific information. Knowledge in the research process can act either as a prerequisite, or as a means, or as a result of scientific research.

There are two types of scientific research: empirical and theoretical, although the distinction is conditional. As a rule, most studies are of a theoretical and empirical nature. Empiricism is a philosophical doctrine that recognizes sensory experience as the only source of knowledge. Empirical knowledge is based on the study of reality and practical experience. As a rule, empirical research is carried out by practitioners - professionals in one or another field of activity (teachers, social workers, psychologists, etc.).

Theoretical research, as already noted, is carried out by people specially trained for this: professors, associate professors, researchers working in scientific institutions or in higher educational institutions.

Empirical research uses methods such as observation, description, experiment; in theoretical research, along with these methods, methods of abstraction, idealization, formalization, modeling, etc. are used. In addition, at the empirical and theoretical levels, logical methods such as analysis - synthesis, induction - deduction, etc. are used. They will be discussed in more detail below.

Empirical and theoretical studies also differ in the results obtained. In the first case, they are recorded in the form of statements, rules, recommendations, in the second - this is theoretical knowledge: scientific concepts, laws and patterns, discoveries and inventions, etc.

We present a comparison of empirical and theoretical knowledge in Table. 1.1

Table 1.1

Empirical knowledge	Scientific knowledge
1. Empirical research carried out by practical workers engaged in professional activities. 2. Cognitive activity is not systematic and purposeful. 3. Methods of cognition - observation, description, experiment, etc. 4. The acquired knowledge is recorded in the form of statements, rules, recommendations	1. Scientific research is carried out by scientists specially trained for this. 2. Scientific activity is systematic and purposeful. 3. Special methods of cognition: abstraction, idealization, formalization, modeling, etc. 4. The acquired knowledge is reflected in the form of scientific concepts, laws and patterns, discoveries and inventions

Despite the difference between empirical and theoretical knowledge, they are closely interrelated: theoretical research is built on the basis of knowledge and facts identified in the process of studying reality.

The empirical level allows you to study reality, identify new facts and phenomena and, on their basis, build generalizations, draw conclusions, give practical recommendations. At the theoretical level, general patterns are put forward that make it possible to explain the relationship between previously discovered facts and phenomena and to formulate laws on the basis of which it is possible to predict the development of future events. This is just a general outline of scientific research.

Types of Scientific Research

Research by nature can be divided into fundamental and applied, monodisciplinary and interdisciplinary, analytical and complex.

Basic research– research that is aimed at understanding reality without taking into account the practical effect of applying knowledge.

Applied Research– research conducted in order to obtain knowledge that should be used to solve a specific practical problem.

Monodisciplinary research- research that is carried out within the framework of a separate science.

Interdisciplinary Research require the participation of specialists from various fields and are carried out at the intersection of several scientific disciplines. These include research in social work: at the intersection of sociology and social work, psychology and social work.

Comprehensive research – research that is carried out using a system of methods and techniques through which scientists strive to cover the maximum (or optimal) possible number of significant parameters of the reality being studied.

Analytical or univariate study– a study that is aimed at identifying one of the most significant, in the opinion of the researcher, aspect of reality.

Research according to the purpose of their implementation can be divided into several types. The first includes exploratory research. Although the name sounds tautological, it implies an attempt to solve a problem that no one has posed or solved using a similar method. Sometimes similar studies are called research “at random”: “Let’s try this, maybe something will work out.” Scientific work of this kind is aimed at obtaining new results in a little-researched area.

Second type - critical studies. They are carried out in order to refute an existing theory, model, hypothesis, law and to test which of two alternative hypotheses more accurately predicts reality. Critical research is carried out in those areas where a rich theoretical and empirical knowledge has been accumulated and proven methods for carrying out experiments are available. Most of the research done in science is related to clarifying. Their goal is to establish the boundaries within which the theory predicts facts and empirical patterns.

1.4. General scheme progress of scientific research

The entire course of scientific research can be represented in the form of the following logical diagram:

1. Justification of the relevance of the chosen topic.

2. Setting the goal and specific objectives of the study.

3. Definition of the object and subject of research.

4. Selection of research methods (techniques).

5. Description of the research process.

6. Discussion of the research results.

7. Formulation of conclusions and evaluation of the results obtained.

Justification of the relevance of the chosen topic– First stage any research. “Relevance” should be understood as follows: to what extent the author correctly understands the chosen topic and evaluates it from the point of view of timeliness and social significance. Coverage of relevance should not be wordy. There is no particular need to start describing it from afar. It is enough to show the main thing within one typewritten page - the essence of the problem situation, from which the relevance of the topic will be visible. Thus, the formulation of the problem situation is a very important part of the introduction.

From proving the relevance of the chosen topic, it is logical to move on to formulation of the purpose of the research undertaken, and also indicate specific tasks to be solved in accordance with this goal. This is usually done in the form of an enumeration (study..., describe..., establish..., find out... etc.). The formulation of these problems must be done as carefully as possible, since the description of their solution should form the content of the sections scientific work.

The following are formulated object and subject of research. An object is a process or phenomenon that generates a problem situation and is chosen for study. An object is something that is within the boundaries of an object. The subject and object of research as categories of the scientific process are related to each other as general and particular. The part of an object that serves as the subject of research is identified. It is the subject of the research that determines the topic of the scientific work, which is indicated on the title page as its title.

Very important stage scientific research is selection of research methods, which serve as a tool in obtaining factual material, being a necessary condition achieving the goal set in the work.

Description of the research process– the main part of scientific work, which covers the methodology and technology of research.

The next stage of scientific research is discussion of its results, which is held at meetings of the graduating department, where a preliminary assessment of the theoretical and practical value of the thesis is given.

The final stage of scientific research is conclusions, which contain something new and essential that constitutes the scientific and practical results of the work carried out.

Delimit empirical And theoretical research, although this distinction is conditional. Typically, most studies have theoretical-empirical nature.

According to the nature of the research, they are divided into the following types:

basic research, which is aimed at understanding reality without taking into account the practical effect of applying knowledge;

applied research which is carried out in order to obtain knowledge that should be used to solve a specific practical problem;

monodisciplinary research, which are carried out within the framework of a separate science (in this case, psychology);

interdisciplinary research, which are carried out at the intersection of several sciences and require the participation of specialists from different fields;

comprehensive research, which are carried out using a system of methods and techniques through which scientists strive to cover the maximum (or optimal) possible number of significant parameters of the reality being studied;

single-factor (analytical) studies, which are aimed at identifying one, most significant, in the researcher’s opinion, aspect of reality.

Based on the purpose of the research, it can be divided into several types:

exploratory research: represent an attempt to solve a problem that no one has posed or solved in a similar way;

critical studies: carried out with the aim of refuting an existing theory, model, hypothesis, etc. or to test which of two alternative hypotheses more accurately predicts reality;

clarifying studies: are carried out with the aim of establishing the boundaries within which the theory predicts facts and empirical patterns;

replication studies: are carried out with the aim of accurately repeating the experiment of predecessors to determine the reliability, reliability and objectivity of the results obtained, and verifying the results obtained by predecessors. Replicative research is the basis of all science. Therefore, the operations performed during the study should be reproduced by any qualified researcher.

Topic 4. Validity of scientific research

Validity – compliance of a particular study with accepted standards, that is, impeccable experimental research.

Validity is a fundamental concept in experimental psychology. The degree of validity determines how well the results of the experiment correspond to the stated task.

The scientific result must be invariant with respect to space, time, types of objects and subjects of research, that is, objective. This means that a scientific result should not depend on where it was obtained, on the time in which it was obtained, on the identity of the study. These requirements relate to an ideal study and its ideal result.

In reality, real research cannot fully correspond to the ideal one. Therefore, we should distinguish between phenomena and processes occurring in reality and their analogues, which we observe or reproduce during research.

In this regard, it is necessary to check the compliance of a real study with an ideal study, that is, to check the validity of a real study.

The correspondence between an ideal experiment and a real one is called internal validity . Internal validity characterizes the degree of reliability of the acquired knowledge that a real experiment provides compared to an ideal one.

Internal validity is a sine qua non of any experiment. D. Campbell identified eight main factors that violate the internal validity of an experiment. The first group of factors can be called sampling factors:

selection– non-equivalence of groups in composition, which causes systematic error in the results;

statistical regression– a special case of selection error, when groups were selected on the basis of “extreme” indicators (otherwise – correlation due to the heterogeneity of the group);

experimental screening– uneven dropout of subjects from the compared groups, leading to non-equivalence of the groups in composition;

natural development– a change in the subjects, which is a consequence of the passage of time, without connection with specific events: a change in state (hunger, fatigue, illness, etc.), in the properties of the individual (age-related changes, accumulation of experience, etc.).

The second group is secondary variables, the influence of which leads to the following effects:

"story" effect– specific events that occur in the period between the initial and final testing in addition to the experimental influence;

testing effect– the influence of preliminary testing on the result of the final one;

instrumental error– is determined by the reliability of the method for recording the subject’s behavior, i.e. reliability of the test; it is reliability that influences validity, according to D. Campbell, and not vice versa;

interaction of factors: selection; natural development, history ( different stories experimental groups), etc.

Later, D. Campbell described a number of other sources of violation of internal validity. The most significant ones relate to the experimental procedure, namely: compensatory comparison of the effects of various influences, imitation of an influence when it does not actually occur, etc.

Any knowledge is good because it can be applied in practice, and this is determined correspondence of real research to the objective reality being studied. This correspondence is called external validity research. Thus, external validity determines the possibility of extending the results obtained in the study to objective reality.

D. Campbell calls the main reasons for the violation of external validity:

testing effect– decrease or increase in the susceptibility of subjects to experimental influence under the influence of testing. For example, preliminary control of students' knowledge can increase their interest in new educational material. Since the population is not pretested, the results for it may not be representative;

research conditions. They cause the subject's reaction to the experiment. Consequently, its data cannot be transferred to individuals who did not take part in the experiment; these individuals are the entire general population, except for the experimental sample;

interaction of selection factors and experimental content. Their consequences are artifacts (in experiments with volunteers or subjects participating under duress);

interference of experimental influences. The subjects have memory and learning ability. If an experiment consists of several series, then the first influences do not pass without a trace and affect the appearance of effects from subsequent influences.

Most of the reasons for the violation of external validity are associated with the features of a psychological experiment conducted with human participation, which distinguish psychological research from experiments carried out by specialists in other natural sciences.

The relationship of actual research to reality can be described as theoretical , or prognostic , validity , since the “ideal research” plan is built on the basis of a theoretical idealization of reality - research hypotheses.

In experimental psychology, along with the above types of validity, the following types are mainly used: operational validity, construct validity and ecological validity.

Operational validity determines the degree of compliance of the methodology and experimental plan with the hypothesis being tested.

Operational validity is a special case of external validity. It determines the degree of compliance of the experimental methodology used (experimental statements) with the theoretical principles that form the basis for the organization and conduct of the experiment.

D. Campbell introduces the concept construct validity . Construct validity refers to attempts to label any aspect of an experiment. The dangers of violating construct validity lie in mislabeling cause and effect using abstract terms and terms taken from ordinary language or formal theory.

“Construct validity expresses the adequacy of the method of interpreting experimental data of a theory. According to D. Campbell, construct validity characterizes the correctness of the designation (interpretation) of the cause and experimental effect using abstract terms from ordinary language or formal theory. Internal validity is determined by the reliability of the interpretation of the experimental effect as a relationship between the studied cause and effect, and constructive validity is determined by the correct use of the terms of a particular theory when interpreting experimental data.”

Adequate handling of terminology relates to the methodological part of the organization of the experiment, therefore, apparently, constructive validity can be considered part of the operational one.

Ecological validity determines the extent to which the experimental conditions simulate the reality under study. In field experiments, ecological validity reaches its maximum naturally; therefore, in laboratory experiments, maintaining a high degree of ecological validity is quite difficult, and it is not always necessary.