Does soda have heat and electrical conductivity? Water: electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity

Research"Study of electrical conductivity aqueous solution baking soda"
Introduction
Soda was known to man approximately one and a half to two thousand years BC, and perhaps even earlier. It was mined from soda lakes and extracted from a few deposits in the form of minerals. The first information about the production of soda by evaporating water from soda lakes dates back to 64 AD. Until the 18th century, alchemists in all countries imagined it as a certain substance that hissed with the release of some kind of gas under the action of acids known by that time - acetic and sulfuric. During the time of the Roman physician Dioscorides Pedanius, no one had any idea about the composition of soda. In 1736, the French chemist, doctor and botanist Henri Louis Duhamel de Monceau was first able to obtain very pure soda from the water of soda lakes. He was able to establish that soda contains the chemical element “Natr”. In Russia, even during the time of Peter the Great, soda was called “zoda” or “itch” and until 1860 it was imported from abroad. In 1864, the first soda plant using the technology of the Frenchman Leblanc appeared in Russia. It was thanks to the emergence of their own factories that soda became more accessible and began its victory path as a chemical, culinary and even medicinal product.
In industry, trade and in everyday life, several products are found under the name soda: soda ash - anhydrous sodium carbonate Na2СO3, bicarbonate of soda - sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3, often also called drinking soda, crystalline soda Na2СO3 10Н2O and Na2СO3 Н2O and caustic soda, or caustic soda, NaOH.Modern baking soda is a typical industrial product.
Currently, the world produces several million tons of soda per year for various uses.
Soda is a many-sided substance, its uses vary. Soda is used from the food industry to metallurgy. I became interested in this substance, which everyone has in their home, and decided to study how the various properties of an aqueous soda solution manifest themselves depending on the temperature and concentration of the solution.
So, our goal was:
Investigate the dependence of the electrical conductivity of an aqueous solution of baking soda on the temperature and concentration of the aqueous solution.
Tasks:
Study the literature on the research topic.
Conduct a knowledge survey on the various uses of baking soda.
Learn to prepare a solution of baking soda of various concentrations.
Investigate the dependence of electrical conductivity on solution concentration and temperature.
The relevance of research:
Soda is a multifaceted substance and its uses vary. Soda is used from the food industry to metallurgy. Knowing its properties is always important.
The slide shows the main uses of baking soda.
chemical industry
light industry
textile industry
food industry
medical industry
metallurgy
So, in the chemical industry - for the production of dyes, foam plastics and other organic products, fluoride reagents, and household chemicals.
In metallurgy - during the precipitation of rare earth metals and ore flotation.
In the textile industry (finishing silk and cotton fabrics).
In light industry - in the production of sole rubber and artificial leather, tanning (tanning and neutralizing leather).
In the food industry - bakery, confectionery production, preparation of drinks.
In the medical industry - for the preparation of injection solutions, anti-tuberculosis drugs and antibiotics
After studying the theoretical material, I decided to ask my classmates if they knew in which areas of industry baking soda is used:
At home
Food industry
Medicine
Chemical industry
Metallurgy
Light industry
Here are the survey results: the largest number of respondents answered:
At home -63%
Food industry-71%
Chemical industry - 57%, the smallest number of respondents indicated the use of soda in metallurgy and light industry.
To conduct further research, I needed to prepare an aqueous solution of different concentrations.
Hypothesis
So, if you increase the concentration of an aqueous solution of baking soda, its electrical conductivity will increase.
II. experimental part
“Study of the electrical conductivity of an aqueous solution of baking soda”
Purpose: to make sure that in an aqueous solution of soda there are carriers of electricity - ions that conduct electricity.
Equipment: baking soda, beakers made of heat-resistant glass, electrodes, connecting wires, power supply, ammeter, voltmeter, key, laboratory scales, weights, thermometer, electric stove. Experiment 1. “Preparation of an aqueous solution of baking soda”
Goal: Learn to prepare an aqueous solution of baking soda of various concentrations.
Equipment: beakers made of heat-resistant glass, filtered water, scales, weighing scales, baking soda.
Performing the experiment:
Place 4 g of baking soda on the scales;
Pour 96 ml into a beaker. filtered water;
Pour baking soda into a glass of water and mix thoroughly;
Repeat the experiment to prepare a solution of 8% and 12%
No. Mass of soda (g) Amount of water (ml) concentration of soda in (%)
1 4 96 4
2 8 92 8
3 12 88 12
Conclusion: I learned experimentally to prepare an aqueous solution of baking soda of various concentrations.
Experiment 2. “Study of the electrical conductivity of a baking soda solution”
Purpose: to prove that as the concentration of soda solution increases, its electrical conductivity increases.
Equipment: three glasses with baking soda solution of varying concentrations, power supply, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires, key, electrodes.
Specific resistance is a scalar quantity, numerically equal to the resistance of a homogeneous cylindrical conductor of unit length and unit area. The greater the resistivity of the conductor material, the greater its electrical resistance.
Unit resistivity– ohm-meter (1 Ohm m).
Performing the experiment:
Assemble the electrical circuit according to the diagram;
Place the electrodes in a beaker with a baking soda solution concentration of 4%, 8% and 12%;
Measure the ammeter and voltmeter readings;
Calculate the solution resistance;
Calculate the electrical conductivity of the solution.
Table 2.
No. Concentration of soda I (A) U (B) R (Ohm) λ=1 R (1Ohm=Sm)1 4 1.0 6 6 0.17
2 8 1,4 6 4,9 0,23
3 12 1,7 6 3,53 0,28
For the experiment, an electrical circuit was assembled according to the diagram. By changing the concentration of the aqueous solution, we record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter.
The measurements were carried out at a temperature of 180C and an atmospheric pressure of 757 mmHg.
Conclusion: Experimentally, I learned to determine the electrical conductivity of baking soda and became convinced that the greater the concentration of the solution, the greater the electrical conductivity of the baking soda solution. And the resistance of the solution decreases with increasing concentration. Therefore, with a 12% baking soda solution, the electrical conductivity will be the highest and the resistance will be the lowest.
Experiment 3. “Study of the dependence of electrical conductivity on solution temperature”
Purpose: Verify that electrical conductivity changes with temperature.
Equipment: three glasses with baking soda solution of different concentrations, power supply, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires, key, electrodes, thermometer, electric stove. Performing the experiment:
Assemble the installation according to the diagram;
Place a 4% baking soda solution on the tile;
Turn on tile;
Record the temperature of the solution;
Measure the ammeter and voltmeter readings every degree of solution;
Calculate resistance and electrical conductivity using formulas.
To study this dependence, a 4% percent solution of baking soda was heated, recording the temperature using a thermometer.
Table 3.
% solution tо C solution I (A) U (B) R (Ohm) λ (Sm)
4 18 1 6 6 0,17
19 1,03 6 5,83 0,172
20 1,05 6 5,71 0,175
21 1,08 6 5,56 0,180
22 1,1 6 5,45 0,183
λ=1R (1Ohm=cm)
Conclusion: From experience it is obvious that electrical conductivity increases with increasing temperature. When heated, the speed of ions increases, thereby accelerating the process of transferring charges from one point to another.
Graph 1. Dependence of solution resistance on temperature.
Graph 2. Dependence of electrical conductivity on temperature
Conclusion
Having studied the literature about the properties of baking soda, its use in medicine, the food industry, and everyday life, and having carried out a series of experiments, we were convinced that:
Soda is a multifaceted substance with various properties.
The resistance of a soda solution depends on its concentration.
The electrical conductivity of the solution also depends on the concentration.
Electrical conductivity increases with increasing temperature.
Literature
General chemical technology. Ed. I. P. Mukhlenova. Textbook for chemical-technological specialties of universities. - M.: Higher school.
Fundamentals of General Chemistry, vol. 3, B.V. Nekrasov. - M.: Chemistry, 1970.
General chemical technology. Furmer I. E., Zaitsev V. N. - M.: Higher School, 1978.
General chemical technology, ed. I. Volfkovich, vol. 1, Soda M. - L., 1953, p. 512-54;
Benkovsky V., Technology of soda products, M, 1972;
Shokin I.N., Krasheninnikov Soda A., Soda technology, M., 1975.

SODIUM(Natrium)Na , chemical element 1st ( Ia ) group of the Periodic Table, belongs to the alkaline elements. Atomic number 11, relative atomic mass 22.98977. In nature there is one stable isotope 23 Na . Six radioactive isotopes of this element are known, two of which are of interest to science and medicine. Sodium-22, with a half-life of 2.58 years, is used as a source of positrons. Sodium-24 (its half-life is about 15 hours) is used in medicine for the diagnosis and treatment of some forms of leukemia.

Oxidation state +1.

Sodium compounds have been known since ancient times. Sodium chloride is an essential component of human food.

C it is read that people began to use it in the Neolithic, i.e. about 57 thousand years ago.

The Old Testament mentions a substance called “neter.” This substance was used as a detergent. Most likely, nether is soda, a sodium carbonate that formed in the salty Egyptian lakes with calcareous shores. The Greek authors Aristotle and Dioscorides later wrote about the same substance, but under the name “nitron,” and the ancient Roman historian Pliny the Elder, mentioning the same substance, called it “nitrum.”

In the 18th century Chemists already knew a lot of different sodium compounds. Sodium salts were widely used in medicine, in tanning leather, and in dyeing fabrics.

Metallic sodium was first obtained by the English chemist and physicist Humphry Davy by electrolysis of molten sodium hydroxide (using a voltaic column of 250 pairs of copper and zinc plates). Name "

sodium Davy's choice for this element reflects its origins in soda Na2CO 3. The Latin and Russian names of the element are derived from the Arabic “natrun” (natural soda).Distribution of sodium in nature and its industrial extraction. Sodium is the seventh most abundant element and the fifth most abundant metal (after aluminum, iron, calcium and magnesium). Its content in the earth's crust is 2.27%. Most of sodium is found in various aluminosilicates.

Huge deposits of sodium salts in relatively pure form exist on all continents. They are the result of the evaporation of ancient seas. This process is still ongoing in Salt Lake (Utah), the Dead Sea and other places. Sodium occurs as chloride

NaCl (halite, rock salt), as well as carbonate Na 2 CO 3 NaHCO 3 2 H 2 O (trona), nitrate NaNO 3 (saltpeter), sulfate Na 2 SO 4 10 H 2 O (mirabilite), tetraborate Na 2 B 4 O 7 10 H 2 O (borax) and Na 2 B 4 O 7 4 H 2 O (kernit) and other salts.

There are inexhaustible reserves of sodium chloride in natural brines and ocean waters (about 30 kg m3). It is estimated that rock salt in an amount equivalent to the sodium chloride content in the World Ocean would occupy a volume of 19 million cubic meters. km (50% more than the total volume of the North American continent above sea level). A prism of this volume with a base area of ​​1 sq. km can reach the Moon 47 times.

Now the total production of sodium chloride from seawater has reached 67 million tons per year, which is about a third of the total world production.

Living matter contains an average of 0.02% sodium; There is more of it in animals than in plants.

Characteristics of a simple substance and industrial production of sodium metal. Sodium is a silvery-white metal, in thin layers with a violet tint, plastic, even soft (easily cut with a knife), a fresh cut of sodium is shiny. The values ​​of electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of sodium are quite high, the density is 0.96842 g/cm 3 (at 19.7 ° C), the melting point is 97.86 ° C, the boiling point is 883.15 ° C.

The ternary alloy, containing 12% sodium, 47% potassium and 41% cesium, has the lowest melting point for metal systems, equal to 78 ° C.

Sodium and its compounds color the flame bright yellow. The double line in the sodium spectrum corresponds to transition 3

s 1 3 p 1 in the atoms of the element.

The chemical activity of sodium is high. In air, it quickly becomes covered with a film of a mixture of peroxide, hydroxide and carbonate. Sodium burns in oxygen, fluorine and chlorine. When a metal is burned in air, peroxide is formed

Na2O 2 (with an admixture of oxide Na2O ).

Sodium reacts with sulfur when ground in a mortar and reduces sulfuric acid to sulfur or even sulfide. Solid carbon dioxide (“dry ice”) explodes on contact with sodium (carbon dioxide fire extinguishers cannot be used to extinguish a sodium fire!). With nitrogen, the reaction occurs only in an electrical discharge. Sodium does not interact only with inert gases.

Sodium reacts actively with water:

Na + 2 H 2 O = 2 NaOH + H 2

The heat released during the reaction is enough to melt the metal. Therefore, if a small piece of sodium is thrown into water, it melts due to the thermal effect of the reaction and a drop of metal, which is lighter than water, “runs” along the surface of the water, driven by the reactive force of the released hydrogen. Sodium reacts much more calmly with alcohols than with water:

Na + 2 C 2 H 5 OH = 2 C 2 H 5 ONa + H 2

Sodium readily dissolves in liquid ammonia to form bright blue metastable solutions with unusual properties. At 33.8° C, up to 246 g of sodium metal dissolves in 1000 g of ammonia. Dilute solutions are blue, concentrated solutions are bronze. They can be stored for about a week. It has been established that in liquid ammonia, sodium ionizes:

Na Na + + e –

The equilibrium constant of this reaction is 9.9·10 3. The leaving electron is solvated by ammonia molecules and forms a complex [

e(NH 3) n ] . The resulting solutions have metallic electrical conductivity. When ammonia evaporates, the original metal remains. When the solution is stored for a long time, it gradually becomes discolored due to the reaction of the metal with ammonia to form an amide NaNH 2 or imide Na 2 NH and the release of hydrogen.

Sodium is stored under a layer of dehydrated liquid (kerosene, mineral oil) and transported only in sealed metal containers.

The electrolytic method for the industrial production of sodium was developed in 1890. Electrolysis was carried out on molten sodium hydroxide, as in Davy's experiments, but using more advanced energy sources than the voltaic column. In this process, along with sodium, oxygen is released:

cathode (iron):

Na + + e = Na

anode (nickel): 4

OH 4 e = O 2 + 2 H 2 O .

During the electrolysis of pure sodium chloride, serious problems arise, associated, firstly, with the close melting point of sodium chloride and the boiling point of sodium and, secondly, with the high solubility of sodium in liquid sodium chloride. Adding potassium chloride, sodium fluoride, calcium chloride to sodium chloride allows you to reduce the melt temperature to 600 ° C. Production of sodium by electrolysis of a molten eutectic mixture (an alloy of two substances with the lowest melting point) 40%

NaCl and 60% CaCl 2 at ~580° C in a cell developed by the American engineer G. Downs, was started in 1921 by DuPont near the power plant at Niagara Falls.

The following processes occur on the electrodes:

cathode (iron):

Na + + e = Na Ca 2+ + 2 e = Ca

anode (graphite): 2

Cl 2 e = Cl 2 .

Sodium and calcium metals form on a cylindrical steel cathode and are lifted up by a cooled tube in which the calcium solidifies and falls back into the melt. Chlorine generated at the central graphite anode is collected under the nickel roof and then purified.

Currently, the production volume of sodium metal is several thousand tons per year.

The industrial use of sodium metal is due to its strong reducing properties. For a long time, most of the metal produced was used to produce tetraethyl lead.

PbEt 4 and tetramethyl lead PbMe 4 (anti-knock agents for gasoline) by the reaction of alkyl chlorides with an alloy of sodium and lead at high pressure. Now this production is rapidly declining due to environmental pollution.

Another area of ​​application is the production of titanium, zirconium and other metals by reducing their chlorides. Smaller amounts of sodium are used to produce compounds such as hydride, peroxide and alcoholates.

Dispersed sodium is a valuable catalyst in the production of rubber and elastomers.

There is increasing use of molten sodium as a heat exchange fluid in fast neutron nuclear reactors. Sodium's low melting point, low viscosity, small neutron absorption cross section, combined with extremely high heat capacity and thermal conductivity, make it (and its alloys with potassium) an indispensable material for these purposes.

Sodium reliably cleans transformer oils, ethers and other organic substances from traces of water, and with the help of sodium amalgam you can quickly determine the moisture content in many compounds.

Sodium compounds. Sodium forms a complete set of compounds with all the usual anions. It is believed that in such compounds there is almost complete separation of charge between the cationic and anionic parts of the crystal lattice.

Sodium oxide

Na2O synthesized by reaction Na 2 O 2 , NaOH , and most preferably NaNO 2, with sodium metal:Na 2 O 2 + 2Na = 2Na 2 O

2NaOH + 2Na = 2Na2O + H2

2 NaNO 2 + 6 Na = 4 Na 2 O + N 2

In the last reaction, sodium can be replaced with sodium azide

NaN 3: NaN 3 + NaNO 2 = 3 Na 2 O + 8 N 2

It is best to store sodium oxide in anhydrous gasoline. It serves as a reagent for various syntheses.

Sodium peroxide

Na2O 2 in the form of a pale yellow powder is formed by the oxidation of sodium. In this case, under conditions of limited supply of dry oxygen (air), oxide is first formed Na2O , which then turns into peroxide Na2O 2. In the absence of oxygen, sodium peroxide is thermally stable up to ~675° C .

Sodium peroxide is widely used in industry as a bleaching agent for fibers, paper pulp, wool, etc. It is a strong oxidizing agent: it explodes when mixed with aluminum powder or charcoal, reacts with sulfur (in this case it becomes hot), ignites many organic liquids. Sodium peroxide reacts with carbon monoxide to form carbonate. The reaction of sodium peroxide with carbon dioxide releases oxygen:

Na 2 O 2 + 2 CO 2 = 2 Na 2 CO 3 + O 2

This reaction has important practical applications in breathing apparatus for submariners and firefighters.

Sodium superoxide

NaO 2 is obtained by slowly heating sodium peroxide at 200450° C under an oxygen pressure of 1015 MPa. Evidence of education NaO 2 were first obtained by reacting oxygen with sodium dissolved in liquid ammonia.

The action of water on sodium superoxide leads to the release of oxygen even in the cold:

NaO 2 + H 2 O = NaOH + NaHO 2 + O 2

As the temperature rises, the amount of oxygen released increases as the resulting sodium hydroperoxide decomposes:

NaO 2 + 2 H 2 O = 4 NaOH + 3 O 2

Sodium superoxide is a component of systems for air regeneration in confined spaces.

Sodium ozonide

Na O 3 is formed by the action of ozone on anhydrous sodium hydroxide powder at low temperature, followed by extraction of red Na About 3 liquid ammonia.

Sodium hydroxide

NaOH often called caustic soda or caustic soda. This is a strong base and is classified as a typical alkali. Numerous hydrates have been obtained from aqueous solutions of sodium hydroxide NaOH nH 2 O, where n = 1, 2, 2.5, 3.5, 4, 5.25 and 7.

Sodium hydroxide is very aggressive. It destroys glass and porcelain due to interaction with the silicon dioxide they contain:

NaOH + SiO 2 = Na 2 SiO 3 + H 2 O

The name "caustic soda" reflects the corrosive effect of sodium hydroxide on living tissue. Getting this substance into the eyes is especially dangerous.

Physician to the Duke of Orleans Nicolas Leblanc (

Leblanc Nicolas ) (17421806) in 1787 developed a convenient process for obtaining sodium hydroxide from NaCl (patent 1791). This first large-scale industrial chemical process became a major technological achievement in Europe in the 19th century. The Leblanc process was later replaced by the electrolytic process. In 1874, world production of sodium hydroxide amounted to 525 thousand tons, of which 495 thousand tons were obtained by the Leblanc method; by 1902, the production of sodium hydroxide reached 1800 thousand tons, but only 150 thousand tons were obtained using the Leblanc method.

Today sodium hydroxide is the most important alkali in industry. Annual production in the USA alone exceeds 10 million tons. It is obtained in huge quantities by electrolysis of brines. When a solution of sodium chloride is electrolyzed, sodium hydroxide is formed and chlorine is released:

cathode (iron) 2

H2O+2 e = H 2 + 2 OH –

anode (graphite) 2

Cl 2 e = Cl 2

Electrolysis is accompanied by the concentration of alkali in huge evaporators. The largest in the world (at the factory

PPG Inductries Lake Charles ) has a height of 41 m and a diameter of 12 m. About half of the sodium hydroxide produced is used directly in the chemical industry to produce various organic and inorganic substances: phenol, resorcinol, b -naphthol, sodium salts (hypochlorite, phosphate, sulfide, aluminates). In addition, sodium hydroxide is used in the production of paper and pulp, soap and detergents, oils, and textiles. It is also necessary when processing bauxite. An important application of sodium hydroxide is the neutralization of acids.

Sodium chloride

NaCl known as table salt, rock salt. It forms colorless, slightly hygroscopic cubic crystals. Sodium chloride melts at 801° C, boils at 1413° C. Its solubility in water depends little on temperature: 35.87 g dissolves in 100 g of water at 20° C NaCl , and at 80° C 38.12 g.

Sodium chloride is a necessary and indispensable seasoning for food. In the distant past, salt was equal in price to gold. IN ancient Rome Legionnaires were often paid not in money, but in salt, hence the word soldier.

IN Kievan Rus they used salt from the Carpathian region, from salt lakes and estuaries on the Black and Azov Seas. It was so expensive that at ceremonial feasts it was served on the tables of noble guests, while others went away “slurping.”

After the annexation of the Astrakhan region to the Moscow state, the Caspian lakes became important sources of salt, and still there was not enough of it, it was expensive, so there was discontent among the poorest sections of the population, which grew into an uprising known as the Salt Riot (1648)

In 1711 Peter I issued a decree introducing a salt monopoly. Trade in salt became the exclusive right of the state. The salt monopoly lasted for more than a hundred and fifty years and was abolished in 1862.

Nowadays sodium chloride is a cheap product. Together with coal, limestone and sulfur, it is one of the so-called “big four” mineral raw materials, the most essential for the chemical industry.

Most sodium chloride is produced in Europe (39%), North America(34%) and Asia (20%), while in South America and Oceania account for only 3% each, and Africa 1%. Rock salt forms vast underground deposits (often hundreds of meters thick) that contain more than 90%

NaCl . A typical Cheshire saltfield (the main source of sodium chloride in the UK) covers an area of ​​60ґ 24 km and has a salt layer thickness of about 400 m. This deposit alone is estimated at more than 10 11 tons.

World salt production by the beginning of the 21st century. reached 200 million tons, 60% of which is consumed by the chemical industry (for the production of chlorine and sodium hydroxide, as well as paper pulp, textiles, metals, rubbers and oils), 30% by the food industry, 10% by other fields of activity. Sodium chloride is used, for example, as a cheap deicing agent.

Sodium carbonate

Na2CO 3 is often called soda ash or simply soda. It occurs naturally in the form of ground brines, brine in lakes, and natron minerals Na 2 CO 3 10 H 2 O, thermosodium Na 2 CO 3 H 2 O, trona Na 2 CO 3 NaHCO 3 2 H 2 O . Sodium forms a variety of other hydrated carbonates, bicarbonates, mixed and double carbonates, e.g. Na 2 CO 3 7 H 2 O, Na 2 CO 3 3 NaHCO 3, aKCO 3 nH 2 O, K 2 CO 3 NaHCO 3 2 H 2 O .

Among the salts of alkali elements obtained industrially, sodium carbonate is of greatest importance. Most often, the method developed by the Belgian chemist-technologist Ernst Solvay in 1863 is used for its production.

A concentrated aqueous solution of sodium chloride and ammonia is saturated with carbon dioxide under slight pressure. In this case, a precipitate of relatively poorly soluble sodium bicarbonate is formed (solubility

NaHCO 3 is 9.6 g per 100 g of water at 20 ° C):NaCl + NH 3 + H 2 O + CO 2 = NaHCO 3Ї + NH 4 Cl To obtain soda, sodium bicarbonate is calcined: NaHCO 3 = Na 2 CO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O

The carbon dioxide released is returned to the first process. Additional carbon dioxide is obtained by calcining calcium carbonate (limestone):

CaCO 3 = CaO + CO 2

The second product of this reaction, calcium oxide (lime), is used to regenerate ammonia from ammonium chloride:

CaO + 2 NH 4 Cl = CaCl 2 + 2 NH 3 + H 2 O

Thus, the only by-product of soda production using the Solvay method is calcium chloride.

Overall process equation:

NaCl + CaCO 3 = Na 2 CO 3 + CaCl 2

Obviously, in normal conditions in an aqueous solution the reverse reaction occurs, since the equilibrium in this system is completely shifted from right to left due to the insolubility of calcium carbonate.

Soda ash, obtained from natural raw materials (natural soda ash), has best quality compared to soda produced by the ammonia method (chloride content less than 0.2%). In addition, specific capital investments and the cost of soda from natural raw materials are 40-45% lower than those obtained synthetically. About a third of the world's soda production now comes from natural deposits.

World production

Na2CO 3 in 1999 was distributed as follows:

Total
North America
Asia/Oceania
Zap. Europe
East Europe
Africa
Lat. America

The world's largest producer of natural soda ash USA, where the largest proven reserves of trona and brine of soda lakes are concentrated. The deposit in Wyoming forms a layer 3 m thick and an area of ​​2300 km 2. Its reserves exceed 10 10 tons. In the USA, the soda industry is focused on natural raw materials; the last soda synthesis plant was closed in 1985. Production of soda ash in the United States in recent years has stabilized at 10.3-10.7 million tons.

Unlike the United States, most countries in the world depend almost entirely on the production of synthetic soda ash. China ranks second in the world in soda ash production after the United States. The production of this chemical in China in 1999 reached approximately 7.2 million tons. The production of soda ash in Russia in the same year amounted to about 1.9 million tons.

In many cases, sodium carbonate is interchangeable with sodium hydroxide (for example, in the production of paper pulp, soap, cleaning products). About half of the sodium carbonate is used in the glass industry. One emerging application is the removal of sulfur contaminants from gas emissions from power generation plants and large furnaces. Sodium carbonate powder is added to the fuel, which reacts with sulfur dioxide to form solid products, particularly sodium sulfite, which can be filtered or precipitated.

Sodium carbonate was previously widely used as "washing soda", but this application has now disappeared due to the use of other household detergents.

Sodium bicarbonate

NaHCO 3 (baking soda), used mainly as a source of carbon dioxide in the baking of bread, confectionery, carbonated drinks and artificial mineral waters, as a component of fire extinguishing compositions and a medicine. This is due to the ease of its decomposition at 50100° WITH.

Sodium sulfate

Na2SO 4 occurs in nature in anhydrous form (thenardite) and as a decahydrate (mirabilite, Glauber's salt). It is part of astrachonite Na 2 Mg (SO 4) 2 4 H 2 O, vanthoffite Na 2 Mg (SO 4) 2, glauberite Na 2 Ca (SO 4) 2. The largest reserves of sodium sulfate are in the CIS countries, as well as in the USA, Chile, and Spain. Mirabilite, isolated from natural deposits or brine of salt lakes, is dehydrated at 100 ° C. Sodium sulfate is also a by-product of the production of hydrogen chloride using sulfuric acid, as well as the end product of hundreds of industrial processes that use neutralization of sulfuric acid with sodium hydroxide.

Data on the production of sodium sulfate are not published, but global production of the natural raw material is estimated to be about 4 million tons per year. The extraction of sodium sulfate as a by-product is estimated in the world as a whole at 1.52.0 million tons.

For a long time, sodium sulfate was little used. Now this substance is the basis of the paper industry, since

Na2SO 4 is the main reagent in kraft pulping for the preparation of brown wrapping paper and corrugated board. Wood shavings or sawdust are processed in a hot alkaline solution of sodium sulfate. It dissolves lignin (the component of wood that holds the fibers together) and releases the cellulose fibers, which are then sent to paper making machines. The remaining solution is evaporated until it is capable of burning, providing steam for the plant and heat for evaporation. Molten sodium sulfate and hydroxide are flame resistant and can be reused.

A smaller portion of sodium sulfate is used in the production of glass and detergents. Hydrated form

Na 2 SO 4 10 H 2 O (Glauber's salt) is a laxative. It is used less now than before.

Sodium nitrate

NaNO 3 is called sodium or Chilean nitrate. The large deposits of sodium nitrate found in Chile appear to have been formed by the biochemical decomposition of organic remains. The ammonia released initially was probably oxidized to nitrous and nitric acids, which then reacted with dissolved sodium chloride.

Sodium nitrate is obtained by the absorption of nitrous gases (a mixture of nitrogen oxides) with a solution of sodium carbonate or hydroxide, or by the exchange interaction of calcium nitrate with sodium sulfate.

Sodium nitrate is used as a fertilizer. It is a component of liquid salt refrigerants, quenching baths in the metalworking industry, and heat-storing compositions. Triple blend of 40%

NaNO 2, 7% NaNO 3 and 53% KNO 3 can be used from the melting point (142° C) to ~600° C. Sodium nitrate is used as an oxidizing agent in explosives, rocket fuels, and pyrotechnic compositions. It is used in the production of glass and sodium salts, including nitrite, which serves as a food preservative.

Sodium nitrite

NaNO 2 can be obtained by thermal decomposition of sodium nitrate or its reduction: NaNO 3 + Pb = NaNO 2 + PbO

For the industrial production of sodium nitrite, nitrogen oxides are absorbed by an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate.

Sodium nitrite

NaNO 2, in addition to being used with nitrates as heat-conducting melts, is widely used in the production of azo dyes, for corrosion inhibition and meat preservation.

Elena

Savinkina LITERATURE Popular library of chemical elements. M., Nauka, 1977
Greenwood N.N., Earnshaw A. Chemistry of the Elements, Oxford: Butterworth, 1997

Who knows the formula of water since school days? Of course, that's it. It is likely that from the entire course of chemistry, many who then do not study it in a specialized manner only have the knowledge of what the formula H 2 O means. But now we will try to understand in as much detail and depth as possible what its main properties are and why there is life without it. on planet Earth is impossible.

Water as a substance

The water molecule, as we know, consists of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Its formula is written as follows: H 2 O. This substance can have three states: solid - in the form of ice, gaseous - in the form of steam, and liquid - as a substance without color, taste or smell. By the way, this is the only substance on the planet that can exist in all three states simultaneously under natural conditions. For example: at the Earth's poles there is ice, in the oceans there is water, and evaporation under the sun's rays is steam. In this sense, water is anomalous.

Water is also the most abundant substance on our planet. It covers the surface of planet Earth by almost seventy percent - these are oceans, numerous rivers with lakes, and glaciers. Most of the water on the planet is salty. It is not suitable for drinking or drinking Agriculture. Fresh water makes up only two and a half percent of the total amount of water on the planet.

Water is a very strong and high-quality solvent. Thanks to this, chemical reactions in water occur at tremendous speed. This same property affects the metabolism in the human body. that the adult human body is seventy percent water. In a child this percentage is even higher. By old age, this figure drops from seventy to sixty percent. By the way, this feature of water clearly demonstrates that it is the basis of human life. The more water in the body, the healthier, more active and younger it is. That’s why scientists and doctors from all countries tirelessly insist that you need to drink a lot. It is water in its pure form, and not substitutes in the form of tea, coffee or other drinks.

Water shapes the climate on the planet, and this is not an exaggeration. Warm ocean currents heat entire continents. This happens due to the fact that water absorbs a lot of solar heat, and then releases it when it begins to cool. This is how it regulates the temperature on the planet. Many scientists say that the Earth would have cooled down and turned into stone long ago if it were not for the presence of so much water on the green planet.

Properties of water

Water has many very interesting properties.

For example, water is the most mobile substance after air. From the school course, many probably remember such a concept as the water cycle in nature. For example: a stream evaporates under the influence of direct sun rays, turns into water vapor. Further, this vapor is transported somewhere by the wind, collects in clouds, or even in and falls in the mountains in the form of snow, hail or rain. Further, the stream runs down from the mountains again, partially evaporating. And so - in a circle - the cycle is repeated millions of times.

Water also has a very high heat capacity. It is because of this that bodies of water, especially the oceans, cool very slowly during the transition from a warm season or time of day to a cold one. Conversely, as the air temperature rises, the water heats up very slowly. Due to this, as mentioned above, water stabilizes the air temperature throughout our planet.

After mercury, water has the highest surface tension. It is impossible not to notice that a drop accidentally spilled on a flat surface sometimes becomes an impressive speck. This shows the viscosity of water. Another property appears when the temperature drops to four degrees. Once the water cools to this point, it becomes lighter. Therefore, ice always floats on the surface of the water and hardens into a crust, covering rivers and lakes. Thanks to this, fish do not freeze out in reservoirs that freeze in winter.

Water as a conductor of electricity

First, you should learn about what electrical conductivity is (including water). Electrical conductivity is the ability of a substance to conduct electric current through itself. Accordingly, the electrical conductivity of water is the ability of water to conduct current. This ability directly depends on the amount of salts and other impurities in the liquid. For example, the electrical conductivity of distilled water is almost minimized due to the fact that such water is purified from various additives that are so necessary for good electrical conductivity. An excellent conductor of current is sea water, where the concentration of salts is very high. Electrical conductivity also depends on the temperature of the water. The higher the temperature, the greater the electrical conductivity of water. This pattern was revealed through multiple experiments of physicists.

Water conductivity measurement

There is such a term - conductometry. This is the name of one of the methods of electrochemical analysis based on electrical conductivity solutions. This method is used to determine the concentration of salts or acids in solutions, as well as to control the composition of some industrial solutions. Water has amphoteric properties. That is, depending on the conditions, it is capable of exhibiting both acidic and basic properties - acting as both an acid and a base.

The device used for this analysis has a very similar name - conductivity meter. Using a conductometer, the electrical conductivity of electrolytes in the solution being analyzed is measured. Perhaps it is worth explaining one more term - electrolyte. This is a substance that, when dissolved or melted, breaks down into ions, due to which an electric current is subsequently conducted. An ion is an electrically charged particle. Actually, a conductometer, taking as a basis certain units of electrical conductivity of water, determines its specific electrical conductivity. That is, it determines the electrical conductivity of a specific volume of water taken as an initial unit.

Even before the beginning of the seventies of the last century, the unit of measurement “mo” was used to indicate the conductivity of electricity; it was a derivative of another quantity - Ohm, which is the basic unit of resistance. Electrical conductivity is a quantity inversely proportional to resistance. Now it is measured in Siemens. This quantity got its name in honor of the physicist from Germany - Werner von Siemens.

Siemens

Siemens (can be designated either Cm or S) is the reciprocal of Ohm, which is a unit of measurement of electrical conductivity. One cm is equal to any conductor whose resistance is 1 ohm. Siemens is expressed through the formula:

• 1 cm = 1: Ohm = A: B = kg −1 m −2 s³A², where
  A - ampere,
  V - volt.

Thermal conductivity of water

Now let's talk about the ability of a substance to transfer thermal energy. The essence of the phenomenon is that the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules, which determine the temperature of a given body or substance, is transferred to another body or substance during their interaction. In other words, thermal conductivity is the heat exchange between bodies, substances, as well as between a body and a substance.

The thermal conductivity of water is also very high. People use this property of water every day without noticing it. For example, pouring cold water into a container and cooling drinks or food in it. Cold water takes heat from the bottle or container, giving away cold in return; a reverse reaction is also possible.

Now the same phenomenon can easily be imagined on a planetary scale. The ocean heats up during the summer, and then, with the onset of cold weather, it slowly cools down and gives off its heat to the air, thereby warming the continents. Having cooled down during the winter, the ocean begins to warm up very slowly compared to the land and gives up its coolness to the continents languishing in the summer sun.

Density of water

It was described above that fish live in a pond in winter due to the fact that the water hardens into a crust over their entire surface. We know that water begins to turn into ice at a temperature of zero degrees. Due to the fact that the density of water is greater than its density, it floats and freezes on the surface.

properties of water

Also, under different conditions, water can be both an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent. That is, water, giving up its electrons, becomes positively charged and oxidizes. Or it acquires electrons and becomes negatively charged, which means it is restored. In the first case, the water oxidizes and is called dead. It has very powerful bactericidal properties, but you don’t need to drink it. In the second case, the water is living. It invigorates, stimulates the body to recover, and brings energy to the cells. The difference between these two properties of water is expressed in the term "oxidation-reduction potential".

What can water react with?

Water is capable of reacting with almost all substances that exist on Earth. The only thing is that for these reactions to occur, you need to provide a suitable temperature and microclimate.

For example, at room temperature, water reacts well with metals such as sodium, potassium, barium - they are called active. With halogens - this is fluorine, chlorine. When heated, water reacts well with iron, magnesium, coal, and methane.

With the help of various catalysts, water reacts with amides and esters of carboxylic acids. A catalyst is a substance that seems to push components towards a mutual reaction, accelerating it.

Is there water anywhere else besides Earth?

So far, no water has been discovered on any planet in the solar system except Earth. Yes, they suggest its presence on the satellites of such giant planets as Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune and Uranus, but so far scientists do not have accurate data. There is another hypothesis, not yet fully verified, about underground water on the planet Mars and on the Earth’s satellite, the Moon. Regarding Mars, a number of theories have been put forward in general that there was once an ocean on this planet, and its possible model was even designed by scientists.

Outside the solar system, there are many large and small planets where, according to scientists, there may be water. But so far there is not the slightest opportunity to be sure of this for sure.

How the thermal and electrical conductivity of water is used for practical purposes

Due to the fact that water has a high heat capacity, it is used in heating mains as a coolant. It ensures heat transfer from producer to consumer. Many nuclear power plants also use water as an excellent coolant.

In medicine, ice is used for cooling, and steam is used for disinfection. Ice is also used in the public catering system.

In many nuclear reactors, water is used as a moderator to ensure the successful occurrence of a nuclear chain reaction.

Pressurized water is used to split, break and even cut rocks. This is actively used in the construction of tunnels, underground premises, warehouses, and subways.

Conclusion

It follows from the article that water, in its properties and functions, is the most irreplaceable and amazing substance on Earth. Does the life of a person or any other living creature on Earth depend on water? Absolutely yes. Does this substance contribute to the management scientific activity a person? Yes. Does water have electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity and other beneficial properties? The answer is also “yes”. Another thing is that there is less and less water on Earth, and especially clean water. And our task is to preserve and protect it (and therefore all of us) from extinction.

What is the difference between an electrode and a heating element boiler?

In a heating element boiler, a heating element - a tubular electric heater - is heated using electricity, which then transfers its heat to the coolant. An electrode boiler works by passing current through a coolant (water or non-freezing coolant “-20 C”). The passage of alternating current cannot be called electrolysis, since only ionization of the liquid occurs. An electrode boiler is a simple and very reliable water (liquid) heater, in ideal cases it can operate without replacing elements for many years (tens of years).

What affects the performance and service life of electrode boilers?

For an electrode boiler to operate, it is necessary that the coolant has the required resistivity (conductivity). An electrode boiler is part of the heating system. To ensure reliable, long-term, trouble-free operation of the boiler, the heating system must comply with the recommended parameters in the boiler passport.

Why are heating systems based on electrode boilers usually more economical and reliable than heating elements?

Despite some difficulties when starting heating systems based on electrode boilers, electrode boilers are at least 20 - 30% more economical than heating elements. The efficiency of electrode boilers has been tested by installation and operation practice for more than 15 years. Reliability and efficiency are ensured by a simpler, more reliable design. In a heating element boiler, the heating elements are first heated, and then the heating elements give off heat to the liquid. In an electrode boiler, the liquid itself plays the role of a heater. When current passes, the liquid is heated by the entire volume in the boiler. Using electrode heating of liquid, it is possible to reduce the volume of the boiler several times compared to a heating element of the same power.
With a correctly assembled system, the boiler starts with low (less than 50%) of the rated power, and as it warms up it gradually gains power. Modern automation allows you to maintain a comfortable room temperature with an accuracy of +/- 0.2 degrees. C. When heating country houses, it is possible to use a weekly mode to control the heating system. Thus, efficiency in the operation of electrode boilers is achieved due to:
- Less heating inertia (several times);
- Smooth start;
- Application of modern automation;
Reliability and durability are ensured by the simplicity of the design and the use of modern materials.

How much electricity will the boiler consume?

The boiler will consume exactly that much electricity. energy, how much is the heat loss of the building.
Under normal operating conditions, under normal heat loss, under making the right choice boiler, at the maximum winter mode (when it is -23 outside for Kiev, with normal assembly of the heating system, the boiler works about 8 hours a day (in the mode on - heating, off - cooling). Next, take the boiler power, multiply it by an average of 8 hours and we get electricity consumption per day.

How to choose the right boiler?

The “ION” electrode boiler is selected according to the following parameters:
- 1 kW of power of an electrode boiler can heat a room with an area of ​​up to 20 sq / m, a volume of up to 60 cubic / m and 40 liters of water in the heating system.
For example, a 5 kW boiler can heat a room with an area of ​​100 sq/m, a volume of 300 cubic meters and with the amount of water in the heating system up to 240 liters.

What pipes and radiators can be used in a heating system with an ION electrode boiler?

For heating systems, any pipes that are certified for this purpose can be used. We recommend using polypropylene.

The use of metal-plastic pipes is undesirable; connecting fittings significantly narrow the flow area;
A metal-plastic pipe is often subject to deformation and delamination when the temperature of the liquid fluctuates.

You can use any modern radiators (cast iron, bimetallic), but it is best to use steel batteries. It is not advisable to use cast iron radiators, as they have a significant volume of liquid, a porous structure and contain dirt inside.

To ensure the durability and reliability of the boiler, the internal diameter of the inlet and outlet pipes and pipe fittings should not be less than the internal diameter of the inlet and outlet pipes of the boiler itself.

What are the advantages of ION electrode boilers?

The working chamber of ION boilers is made of thick special pipe material, which is very important for ionization boilers in terms of their reliability and durability.

The working chamber of almost all such boilers is made of thin-walled ordinary pipe material. The electrodes of “ION” boilers with a larger diameter are made of a special alloy, which increases their durability and reliability during the ion exchange process, and also makes it possible to generate a heat flow inside the boiler chamber at a higher speed, unlike boilers of the same boilers from other manufacturers.

ION boilers are presented in a wider range of models, unlike other brands of boilers, which allows expanding consumer demand.

The ION boiler manufacturer does not bind the buyer to its coolant, and ION electric boilers can be operated, unlike some boilers, with ordinary water or with a self-prepared solution in the heating system.

Can antifreeze be used as a coolant?

It is necessary to understand that antifreeze is not intended for use in heating systems. He's poisonous! It is better to use special non-freezing liquids. But since the manufacturers of these liquids do not take into account its electrical conductivity, it is possible that after pumping it into the heating system, you will still have to make preparations - adjust the electric boiler to the required current (this is described in detail in the operating manual). From practice, I can say that usually when using non-freezing liquids, the current in the electric boiler phase is too high, and it is necessary to dilute with distilled water (approximately to the freezing temperature of -5-10 degrees).

And of course, don’t forget about the properties of antifreeze:

1. The physical properties of antifreeze differ significantly from physical properties water. The heat capacity of antifreeze is 15-20% less than that of water, viscosity is 2-3 times higher, volumetric expansion is 40-60% greater. The values ​​of thermal conductivity, boiling point, and other physical characteristics also differ. This means that when using antifreeze in the heating system, it will be necessary to increase the thermal power of the radiators by 40-50%, increase the volume of the expansion tank by 40-50%, increase the pressure of the circulation pump by 60%, change a number of other parameters of the heating system, including and boiler power.
2. If the temperature of the antifreeze in the system, even at any one point (and most often this happens inside the heating element of the boiler), exceeds a critical value for a given brand of antifreeze, thermal decomposition of ethylene glycol and anti-corrosion additives occurs with the formation of acids and solid precipitation. Precipitation impairs the flow of coolant through the system. Acids cause corrosion of heating system metals. Also, overheating of antifreeze causes increased foaming, which leads to airing of the system, and in some cases until the foam thickens, and the formation of solid foam-like deposits. The decomposition of additives leads to the fact that antifreeze enters into a chemical reaction with sealing materials - rubber, paronite, etc., which causes leaks at the joints. In addition, the use of pipelines with an internal zinc coating is unacceptable.
3. Antifreezes have the property of increased permeability or fluidity. The more threaded connections, gaskets, and seals, the higher the likelihood of a leak. Basically, leakage often occurs when the heating is turned off and the system has cooled down. Due to cooling, the volume of metal compounds decreases and, as a result, microchannels appear through which antifreeze escapes. For this reason, all connections in the heating system must be accessible for inspection and repair, which means that hidden installation of the heating system is unacceptable. Ethylene glycol-based antifreezes are toxic (single lethal dose 100-300 ml), so they cannot be used to heat water in hot water systems, since if the heat exchangers are leaking, they can get into hot water distribution points. Antifreeze vapors are also toxic and should not enter residential areas.
4. If you have no other choice and you decide to use non-freezing liquid as a coolant, then you should opt for non-freezing liquid for electrode boilers "POTOK-40", but you should take into account that for this it is necessary to replace all rubber gaskets in the system heating with paronite!

Is it possible to use an ION electrode boiler in conjunction with a circulation pump?

The electrode boiler is a flow-type heater and for the correct operation of the boiler and heating system using a circulation pump, it is necessary to ensure the flow of coolant through the boiler with the following indicators:

Are pipes of any diameter used when installing an electrode boiler?

In the heating system, it is recommended to install pipes at the inlet and outlet of the electric boiler with a diameter of at least 1 inch in the heating system. After the comb, you can switch to pipes of a smaller diameter, provided that the total cross-section of the smaller diameter pipes is at least 1 inch.

How to heat a house with an area of ​​more than 750 kW/m?
What should I do if the area of ​​my premises is 2800 kW/m?

For an area of ​​2800 kW/m it is necessary to install a mini-boiler room consisting of 4 “ION” 3/36 electrode boilers connected in parallel to each other. When two or more electric electrode boilers “ION” (of the same power) are connected in parallel into one water heating system, the area (volume) of the heated room increases by 2 or more times.
For example: two modifications 3/36 heat an area of ​​1500 sq/m, with a volume of 4500 cubic meters, three modifications 3/36 heat an area of ​​2250 kV/m, with a volume of 6750 cubic meters, etc.

Can an electrode boiler work without a circulation pump?

The ionization chamber, where the heating process takes place, is small in size, so there follows a sharp heating of the coolant and, as a consequence, an increase in its pressure (at maximum power device - up to 2 atmospheres). Thus, the ION electrode boiler can operate in heating systems without a circulation pump, if the heating system is assembled according to a natural circulation scheme.

Is it possible to parallel connection with other boilers?

An electrode boiler can be installed in parallel with other boilers (gas, solid fuel, etc.), and used at a time convenient for you.

Do you need an ammeter or clamp meter to start an electrode boiler?

After connecting the boiler to the heating system and turning on the power, the current consumption is measured with an ammeter. If the current strength is higher than that specified in the boiler passport, it is necessary to add distilled (melt or rain) water to the heating system. If the current strength is less than required, it is necessary to add caustic (baking) soda to the heating system at the rate of 30 grams per 100 liters of water, stirring the soda in warm water.

Is it possible to use the "ION" electrode boiler in heating systems with aluminum radiators?

Yes, this is possible, the only caveat is that instead of a soda solution, to increase the electrical conductivity of water, you need to use ASO-1 (a special product for aluminum radiators)

What liquid is used in the heating system when operating the ION electrode boiler?

When operating the ION electrode boiler, a specially prepared coolant is not required. It uses ordinary water with a specific electrical resistance of no more than 1300 Ohm cm. Since water is an element of an electrical circuit that generates heat, it needs some preparation to obtain the desired electrical resistance (for example, attempts to heat distilled water will not be successful because it does not conduct electric current). Preparation is carried out experimentally - the electrical resistance of water is reduced by adding a solution of caustic (baking) soda, or increased by mixing distilled (rain, melt) water. All this is described in detail in the passport for electric boilers.

Is it possible to use the ION electrode boiler to produce hot water?

“ION” electrode boilers can work together with indirect heating boilers to produce hot water supply, for example, the “ION” 3/9 electric boiler can heat a room with an area of ​​up to 180 m2, a ceiling height of up to 3 meters and a volume of water in the heating system of up to 360 liters, with When connecting an indirect heating boiler, you need to add power to it for hot water supply (DHW) based on the passport data of your boiler, for example 3/6 kW, in total for heating the house and DHW, you will need a boiler with a total capacity of 3/9 kW + 3/6 kW = 3 / 15 kW

Is it possible to use an ION electric electrode boiler in conjunction with a heated floor system?

A water heated floor is a closed system of pipes located in the floor screed and connected to the heating system. Metal-plastic pipes are usually used due to ease of installation. Warm floors can be used as primary or additional heating. When using a heated floor together with an ION electric electrode boiler, a greater economic effect can be achieved.
A warm water floor has a number of advantages. Thanks to the large surface, the amount of radiated heat increases and is immediately transferred to surrounding objects. Thus, the warm floor ensures uniform horizontal and vertical distribution of heat over the entire area of ​​the room.

Can you explain in simple language how to prepare the coolant?

If you use ordinary water as a coolant in your heating system, then it must be brought into compliance with GOST R 51232 “Drinking water” (1300 Ohm per cubic cm).
You cannot do this at home without special equipment. But it is possible to go the other way.
When putting the “ION” electric boiler into operation, it is necessary to measure the starting current with an ammeter using a current clamp (or a direct-connection ammeter).
If at startup the current strength does not correspond to the parameters specified in the product data sheet, then the following actions should be taken:

1. The current is less - it is necessary to add the soda solution in portions (it reduces the resistivity of the liquid). The first stage is no more than a teaspoon per hundred liters of water (coolant). If after 2 hours the current increases slightly, the first stage should be repeated.
2. The current is greater - add distilled or rain (melt) water (it increases the specific resistance of the liquid).

Tell me what other materials need to be purchased and what else will have to be done to get your boiler up and running?

An approximate list of additional materials and equipment for installing and launching a single-phase heating system “ION”.

Necessarily :

1. Magnetic starter (contactor) corresponding current characteristics this model "ION".
2. Automatic single-pole switch (automatic) corresponding to the current characteristics of this “ION” model.
3. Electrical cable(electrical wire) with a cross-section corresponding to the current characteristics of this “ION” model. Electrical cable (electrical wire) for connecting the thermostat (for example 3x0.5 (0.75) or pv 3x0.5 (0.75).)
4. ASO-1 (soda substitute for aluminum radiators), if aluminum radiators are installed in the system, to increase the electrical conductivity of water

1. Boxing (box) for installation of start-protective equipment.
2. Direct connection ammeter (clamp meter) for monitoring the workload and, if necessary, timely adjustment of the electrical conductivity of the coolant.
3. The control lamp indicates the state of the boiler (heating, interruption, absence/presence of power supply in the network).
4. Weekly programmer SALUS FL091 for additional energy savings and more comfortable use of the heating system

Protective grounding is MANDATORY!
Heating system:

To facilitate the operation of the ION boiler and significantly save energy, it is advisable to use circulation pump. The heating system should be provided with additional valves for convenient maintenance, installation and dismantling of the boiler and pump.

What is better than three-phase boilers?

It all depends on what voltage you have - 220 or 380.
If you have the opportunity to install the boiler on three phases 380V. , From 3/6 kW, this gives you additional benefits. Three-phase boilers have three electrodes installed, which can be turned on in stages, for example, the “ION” 3/6 kW boiler has three 2 kW electrodes installed; during off-season periods, when it’s + 10 degrees outside, you don’t need to turn on the boiler at full power, but It is enough to turn on one electrode. If you do not have three phases, then you can install a three-phase boiler on one phase. The phase is divided into three outputs and connected via automatic circuit breakers to three electrodes. It is advisable to use three-phase boilers from 100 sq.m.

What problems can arise when installing copper pipelines?

When assembling a heating system from copper piping, an important issue is the connection of copper with other metals in the same water circulation system. When copper is directly combined with steel, galvanized steel or aluminum, an electrochemical reaction occurs, causing the rapid dissolution of iron, zinc and aluminum. And also, pipes cannot be used as grounding elements for electrical equipment. To eliminate this phenomenon, it is necessary to separate these metals from the copper with an insulating gasket. Even in the absence of a metal joint, copper stimulates corrosion of the above materials. This process is the result of copper ions (Cu2+) being precipitated and penetrating into the water during the uniform corrosion of copper surfaces. Ions are deposited in places where corrosion pits have already occurred, causing accelerated destruction of the base material (steel, galvanized steel, or aluminum). The most dangerous forms of corrosion include ulcerative and erosive.
Pitting corrosion is local corrosion of metal that occurs in places where the oxide protective film covering the internal surfaces of pipes in contact with water is destroyed. In cold and hot water pipes, the following factors make it difficult to form a protective film or damage an existing film:

• wrong chemical composition copper,
• improper preparation of the internal surfaces of pipes during their production,
• Solder leakage on the inner surface of the pipes,
• the presence of solid particles inside the pipes (for example, sand) that entered the installation during installation or during operation (hence the requirement to filter the water both supplied to the system and used to flush it).

Erosive corrosion is caused by turbulent flow of water near the walls of pipes. Thus, it is important to comply with the design speed of water flow, as well as to exclude local resistances, such as narrowings, solder sagging, and incorrectly executed outlets.

In heating systems, the combination of steel and copper is permissible only if the oxygen content in the water does not exceed 0.1 mg/dm3, which is practically possible only in closed systems. Even in closed system circulation, it is not recommended to use copper and aluminum radiators in the same circuit.

I can use an electrode boiler for heating if I have a Device installed in my electrical network protective shutdown(RCD)?

The practical value of current leakage is determined by the design of the insulators and lies in the range of 20 ¬ 40 mA. This should be noted Special attention when connecting heaters to an electrical network with an installed residual current device (RCD), which usually registers current leakage within 30 - 40 mA.
Taking this into account, heaters of this type must be connected through a separate circuit breaker, bypassing the RCD.

Can I get a certificate of conformity for your products?

Our company has fifteen years of experience in the development and production of electrode (ion) boilers. For the first time on the Ukrainian market we present an energy-saving electrode heating device"ION" of new generation.

Manufactured using latest technologies and modern materials. The improved design and improved electrode alloy composition ensure a long service life.

Electrode heating device "ION" is manufactured according to technical specifications and design documentation.

You can view the quality certificate by clicking on the image.

Rozanov Evgeniy

Soda is a many-sided substance, its uses vary. Soda is used from the food industry to metallurgy. I became interested in this substance, which everyone has in their home, and decided to study how the various properties of an aqueous soda solution manifest themselves depending on the temperature and concentration of the solution.

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The work was completed by Evgeniy Rozanov. Scientific supervisor: Khabarova Olga Nikolaevna

Doroninskoye Soda Lake is a hydrological natural monument, the largest soda lake Eastern Siberia. The area of ​​the reservoir varies from 3.7 to 4.8 km2 in different seasons and years. The average water depth is about 4 m, the greatest is 6.5 m. The most famous deposit of self-planting soda in Transbaikalia is located on the lake.

Dioscorides Pedanius Greek by birth, physician, pharmacologist and naturalist, one of the founders of botany, Dioscorides Pedanius was born in Anazarbe, Cilicia, Asia Minor (modern Nazarba). Dioscorides traveled extensively with the Roman army under Emperor Nero, practicing military medicine, collecting and identifying plants. Dioscorides's main work, De materia medica (On Medicinal Substances), contains a description of 600 plants and 1,000 different medications. In the Middle Ages, De materia medica was considered the main source of knowledge on botany and pharmacology.

Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau Peter the Great

Leblanc Studied medicine, listened to lectures on chemistry by G. Ruel at the Botanical Garden of Paris. In 1791, Nicolas Leblanc received a patent for "Method of converting Glauber's salt into soda." Leblanc offered his technology for producing soda to Duke Philippe of Orleans, whose personal physician he was. In 1789, the Duke signed an agreement with Leblanc and allocated him two hundred thousand silver livres for the construction of the plant. The soda factory in the Paris suburb of Saint-Genis was called “Franciade – Soda Leblanc” and produced 100-120 kg of soda daily. During French Revolution in 1793, the Duke of Orleans was executed, his property was confiscated, and the soda factory and Leblanc's patent itself were nationalized. Only seven years later, Leblanc was given back the ruined plant, which he was unable to restore.

Purpose: To study the dependence of the electrical conductivity of an aqueous solution of baking soda on the temperature and concentration of the aqueous solution.

Objectives: Study the literature on the research topic. Conduct a knowledge survey on the various uses of baking soda. Learn to prepare a solution of baking soda of various concentrations. Investigate the dependence of electrical conductivity on solution concentration and temperature.

Relevance of the study Soda is a multifaceted substance, its uses are varied. Soda is used from the food industry to metallurgy. Knowing its properties is always relevant.

Soda is a substance with many faces

Areas of application of baking soda chemical light industry textile industry food industry medical industry metallurgy

Chemical industry In the chemical industry - for the production of dyes, foam plastics and other organic products, fluoride reagents, household chemicals.

Metallurgy In metallurgy - during the precipitation of rare earth metals and flotation of ores.

Textile and light textile industry (finishing of silk and cotton fabrics). light industry - in the production of sole rubber and artificial leather, tanning (tanning and neutralizing leather).

Food industry In the food industry - bakery, confectionery production, preparation of drinks.

Medical industry In the medical industry - for the preparation of injection solutions, anti-tuberculosis drugs and antibiotics

Questionnaire In what areas of industry do you think baking soda is used: Food industry Medicine Metallurgy Chemical industry Light industry At home

Survey results

Conclusion from the survey The majority of respondents answered that soda is used most often in everyday life, in the food industry, and in the chemical industry.

Hypothesis If you increase the concentration of an aqueous solution of baking soda, its electrical conductivity will increase.

Experiment No. 1 “Preparation of an aqueous solution of baking soda” Goal: learn to prepare an aqueous solution of baking soda of various concentrations. Equipment: 3 beakers, baking soda, filtered water, scales, weights.

No. Mass of soda (g) Mass of water (ml) Concentration of soda (%) 1 4 96 4 2 8 92 8 3 12 88 12

Conclusion: I learned experimentally to prepare an aqueous solution of baking soda of various concentrations.

Experiment No. 2 “Study of the electrical conductivity of a baking soda solution” Purpose: to prove that with increasing concentration of the soda solution, its electrical conductivity increases. Equipment: Power supply, 2 electrodes, 3 glasses with soda solution of various concentrations, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires, key

Installation diagram

Table No. Concentration of soda I (A) U (B) R (Ohm) λ =1/ R (1/ Ohm = cm) 1 4 1.0 6 6 0.17 2 8 1.4 6 4.9 0.23 3 12 1.7 6 3.53 0.28

Formulas for calculating R=U/I (Ohm=V/A) λ =1/R (1/Ohm=Sm) (Siemens)

Conclusion: Experimentally, I learned to determine the electrical conductivity of baking soda and became convinced that the greater the concentration of the solution, the greater the electrical conductivity of the baking soda solution. And the resistance of the solution decreases with increasing concentration.

Experiment No. 3 “Study of the dependence of electrical conductivity on the temperature of the solution” Purpose: Make sure that the electrical conductivity of the solution depends on temperature. Equipment: Thermometer, Power supply, 2 electrodes, 3 glasses with soda solution of various concentrations, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires, key, heating element.

Table of % solution t o C solution I (A) U (B) R (Ohm) λ (Sm) 4 18 1 6 6 0.17 19 1.03 6 5.83 0.172 20 1.05 6 5.71 0.175 21 1.08 6 5.56 0.180 22 1.1 6 5.45 0.183

Graph 1. Dependence of solution resistance on temperature

Graph 2. Dependence of electrical conductivity on temperature

Conclusion: From experience it is obvious that electrical conductivity increases with increasing temperature. When heated, the speed of the ions increases, thereby accelerating the process of charge transfer from one point to another, from one electrode to another.

Conclusion: Having studied the literature on the research topic and conducted a sociological survey, we came to the conclusion: Soda is a multifaceted substance with different properties. The resistance of a soda solution depends on its concentration. The electrical conductivity of the solution also depends on the concentration. Electrical conductivity increases with increasing temperature.

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Research
“Study of the electrical conductivity of an aqueous solution of baking soda”

Introduction

Soda was known to man approximately one and a half to two thousand years BC, and perhaps even earlier. It was mined from soda lakes and extracted from a few deposits in the form of minerals. The first information about the production of soda by evaporating water from soda lakes dates back to 64 AD. Until the 18th century, alchemists in all countries imagined it as a certain substance that hissed with the release of some kind of gas under the action of acids known by that time - acetic and sulfuric. During the time of the Roman physician Dioscorides Pedanius, no one had any idea about the composition of soda. In 1736, the French chemist, doctor and botanist Henri Louis Duhamel de Monceau was first able to obtain very pure soda from the water of soda lakes. He was able to establish that soda contains the chemical element “Natr”. In Russia, even during the time of Peter the Great, soda was called “zoda” or “itch” and until 1860 it was imported from abroad. In 1864, the first soda plant using the technology of the Frenchman Leblanc appeared in Russia. It was thanks to the emergence of its factories that soda became more accessible and began its victorious path as a chemical, culinary and even medicinal product.

In industry, trade and in everyday life, several products are found under the name soda: soda ash - anhydrous sodium carbonate Na 2 CO 3 , bicarbonate of soda - sodium bicarbonate NaHCO 3 , often also called baking soda, crystalline soda Na 2 CO 3 10H 2 O and Na 2 CO 3 H 2 O and caustic soda, or caustic soda, NaOH.
Modern baking soda is a typical industrial product

Currently, the world produces several million tons of soda per year for various uses.

Soda is a many-sided substance, its uses vary. Soda is used from the food industry to metallurgy. I became interested in this substance, which everyone has in their home, and decided to study how the various properties of an aqueous soda solution manifest themselves depending on the temperature and concentration of the solution.

So, our goal was:

Investigate the dependence of the electrical conductivity of an aqueous solution of baking soda on the temperature and concentration of the aqueous solution.

Tasks:

1. Study the literature on the research topic.
2. Conduct a knowledge survey on the various uses of baking soda.
3. Learn to prepare a solution of baking soda of various concentrations.
4. Investigate the dependence of electrical conductivity on solution concentration and temperature.

The relevance of research:

Soda is a multifaceted substance and its uses vary. Soda is used from the food industry to metallurgy. Knowing its properties is always important.

The slide shows the main uses of baking soda.

1. chemical industry
2. light industry
3. textile industry
4. food industry
5. medical industry
6. metallurgy

So, in the chemical industry - for the production of dyes, foam plastics and other organic products, fluoride reagents, and household chemicals.

1. In metallurgy - during the precipitation of rare earth metals and ore flotation.

1. In the textile industry (finishing silk and cotton fabrics).
2. In light industry - in the production of sole rubber and artificial leather, tanning (tanning and neutralizing leather).
3. In the food industry - bakery, confectionery production, preparation of drinks.

1. In the medical industry - for the preparation of injection solutions, anti-tuberculosis drugs and antibiotics

After studying the theoretical material, I decided to ask my classmates if they knew in which areas of industrybaking soda used:

1. At home
2. Food industry
3. Medicine
4. Chemical industry
5. Metallurgy
6. Light industry

Here are the survey results: the largest number of respondents answered:

1. At home -63%
2. Food industry-71%
3. Chemical industry - 57%, the smallest number of respondents indicated the use of soda in metallurgy and light industry.

To conduct further research, I needed to prepare an aqueous solution of different concentrations.

Hypothesis

So, if you increase the concentration of an aqueous solution of baking soda, its electrical conductivity will increase.

II. experimental part

“Study of the electrical conductivity of an aqueous solution of baking soda”

Target: make sure that in an aqueous solution of soda there are carriers of electricity - ions that conduct electric current.

Equipment: baking soda, beakers made of heat-resistant glass, electrodes, connecting wires, power supply, ammeter, voltmeter, key, laboratory scales, weights, thermometer, electric stove.

Experience 1. “Preparation of an aqueous solution of baking soda”

Target: Learn how to prepare an aqueous solution of baking soda of varying concentrations.

Equipment: beakers made of heat-resistant glass, filtered water, scales, weights, baking soda.

Performing the experiment:

1. Place 4 g of baking soda on the scales;
2. Pour 96 ml into a beaker. filtered water;
3. Pour baking soda into a glass of water and mix thoroughly;
4. Repeat the experiment to prepare a solution of 8% and 12%

	Weight of soda (g)	Amount of water (ml)	soda concentration in (%)

Conclusion: Experimentally, I learned how to prepare an aqueous solution of baking soda of various concentrations.

Experiment 2. “Study of the electrical conductivity of a baking soda solution”

Target: prove that as the concentration of soda solution increases, its electrical conductivity increases.

Equipment: three glasses with a solution of baking soda of various concentrations, a power source, an ammeter, a voltmeter, connecting wires, a key, electrodes.

Specific resistance is a scalar quantity numerically equal to the resistance of a homogeneous cylindrical conductor of unit length and unit area. The greater the resistivity of the conductor material, the greater its electrical resistance.

The unit of resistivity is the ohm meter (1 ohm m).

Performing the experiment:

1. Assemble the electrical circuit according to the diagram;
2. Place the electrodes in a beaker with a baking soda solution concentration of 4%, 8% and 12%;
3. Measure the ammeter and voltmeter readings;
4. Calculate the solution resistance;
5. Calculate the electrical conductivity of the solution.

Table 2.

	Soda concentration	I(A)	U (B)	R (Ohm)	λ=1 R (1Ohm=cm)
					0,17
					0,23
				3,53	0,28

For the experiment, an electrical circuit was assembled according to the diagram. By changing the concentration of the aqueous solution, we record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter.

The measurements were carried out at a temperature of 18 0 C and atmospheric pressure 757 mmHg.

Conclusion: Experimentally, I learned to determine the electrical conductivity of baking soda and became convinced that the greater the concentration of the solution, the greater the electrical conductivity of the baking soda solution. And the resistance of the solution decreases with increasing concentration. Therefore, with a 12% baking soda solution, the electrical conductivity will be the highest and the resistance will be the lowest.

Experiment 3. “Study of the dependence of electrical conductivity on solution temperature”

Target: Make sure that electrical conductivity changes with temperature.

Equipment: three glasses with a solution of baking soda of various concentrations, a power source, an ammeter, a voltmeter, connecting wires, a key, electrodes, a thermometer, an electric stove.

Performing the experiment:

1. Assemble the installation according to the diagram;
2. Place a 4% baking soda solution on the tile;
3. Turn on tile;
4. Record the temperature of the solution;
5. Measure the ammeter and voltmeter readings every degree of solution;
6. Calculate resistance and electrical conductivity using formulas.

   1,05

   5,71

   0,175

   1,08

   5,56

   0,180

   5,45

   0,183

   λ=1R (1Ohm=cm)

   Conclusion: It is obvious from experience that electrical conductivity increases with increasing temperature. When heated, the speed of ions increases, thereby accelerating the process of transferring charges from one point to another.

   Schedule 1. Dependence of solution resistance on temperature.

   Schedule 2. Dependence of electrical conductivity on temperature

   Conclusion

   Having studied the literature about the properties of baking soda, its use in medicine, the food industry, and everyday life, and having carried out a series of experiments, we were convinced that:

   1. Soda is a multifaceted substance with various properties.
   2. The resistance of a soda solution depends on its concentration.
   3. The electrical conductivity of the solution also depends on the concentration.
   4. Electrical conductivity increases with increasing temperature.

   Literature

   1. General chemical technology. Ed. I. P. Mukhlenova. Textbook for chemical-technological specialties of universities. - M.: Higher school.
   2. Fundamentals of General Chemistry, vol. 3, B.V. Nekrasov. - M.: Chemistry, 1970.
   3. General chemical technology. Furmer I. E., Zaitsev V. N. - M.: Higher School, 1978.
   4. General chemical technology, ed. I. Volfkovich, vol. 1, Soda M. - L., 1953, p. 512-54;
   5. Benkovsky V., Technology of soda products, M, 1972;
   6. Shokin I. N., Krasheninnikov Soda A., Soda technology, M., 1975.