Foreign policy of the 2nd half of the 18th century briefly. Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century

The rise of the country's economy, the creation of a regular army and navy, and the victory in the Northern War strengthened Russia's international position. The strengthening of Russia worried not only its neighbors Sweden, Poland, Turkey, but also large European countries - England, France, Austria. In solving its foreign policy problems, Russia took advantage of the contradictions that arose between the powers.

In the first quarter of the 18th century. one of the main foreign policy tasks was solved - access to the Baltic Sea was won. The following two foreign policy tasks remained unresolved.

The first of them was associated with the need to gain access to the Azov and Black Seas, annex and develop vast expanses of land lying between the abatis and the Azov-Black Sea coast. These lands remained undeveloped and were under the rule of Turkey and its vassal Crimean Khanate, which continued an aggressive policy towards Russia. This slowed down the pace of development in the southern regions and threatened their security. Access to the Azov and Black Seas required economic development countries (entering new markets for raw materials and sales). The annexation of new fertile lands of the south was necessary for their distribution to the nobility.

The second foreign policy task was the reunification of Right Bank Ukraine with the Left Bank and the inclusion of Belarus into Russia, which was supposed to unite Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians in one state. At times, foreign policy issues such as the aggressive policy of Prussia and relations with states also became acute. Central Asia, Caucasus and Transcaucasia.

The solution of foreign policy problems, on the one hand, had a progressive significance, corresponding to the national interests of Russia and the peoples inhabiting it. On the other hand, foreign policy was carried out by the autocracy in the interests of strengthening this system and the dominant position of the nobility. The struggle to preserve the autocratic system and suppress protests against it were also the most important features of Russian foreign policy.

Seven Years' War (1756-1763)

Of greatest importance in the foreign policy events of the mid-18th century. had the Seven Years' War. In Europe, Prussia's aggressive policy intensified, posing a threat to Russian interests. Chancellor A.P. Bestuzhev, who led Russian foreign policy in the 40-50s, made a lot of efforts to create an anti-Prussian coalition, which included Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony. The war began in 1756 with the Prussian attack on Saxony and the defeat of the Austrian army. In the summer of 1757, Russia entered the war. On August 19, 1757, Russian troops defeated

Prussians near Gross-Jägersdorf. East Prussia was soon occupied by Russian troops.

The Prussians suffered a new defeat on August 14, 1758 at Zorndorf. On August 1, 1759, the Russian army reached the Oder and defeated the Prussian king Frederick II at Kunersdorf. In 1760, Russian troops occupied Berlin. Prussia was on the brink of disaster. She was saved from this on December 25, 1761 by the death of Empress Elizabeth. Peter III, who idolized Frederick II, made peace with him in May 1762, returning to Prussia all the territories conquered by Russia. After the accession of Catherine II, Russia annulled the alliance concluded by Peter III with Prussia. As a result of the Seven Years' War, the Prussian threat was ended for many decades.

Russo-Turkish Wars (1768-1774; 1787-1791)

In 1768, incited and subsidized by France, Turkey decided to resume aggression in Ukraine and the Caucasus. For Russia, the Turkish attack turned out to be

unexpected, and military actions of 1768-1769. were unsuccessful for the Russian army. The situation changed in 1770, when P.A. Rumyantsev won major victories on the tributaries of the Prut River Large and Kagul. The Russian squadron of G.A. Spiridonov, leaving the Baltic, defeated the Turkish fleet in Chesme Bay on June 25-26, 1770. In 1771, Russian troops occupied all the main centers of Crimea. After some lull, military operations intensified again in 1773. In 1773, the troops of A.V. Suvorov took the Tartukai fortress, and in 1774 they won a victory at Kozludzha.

Türkiye was forced to sign a peace treaty in the village on July 10, 1774 Kuchuk-Kainardzhi. This peace eliminated Crimea's dependence on Turkey. Russia received the lands between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug, Kerch and the right to unhindered navigation of Russian merchant ships in the Black Sea. In the spring of 1783, the Crimean Khanate ceased to exist, Russian troops entered Crimea, and it was incorporated into Russia. In 1783, the Georgian king Irakli II signed a treaty with Russia in the city of Georgievsk, according to which Georgia came under the protection of Russia, which guaranteed its territorial integrity and border security.

Not wanting to accept the loss of undivided dominance in the Black Sea, Turkey began a new war with Russia in 1787. In 1787, A.V. Suvorov defeated the Turkish landing in the Kinburn area, after which the Russian army besieged Ochakov and took it at the end of 1788. In 1789, Suvorov won victories over the Turks at Focsani and Rymnik. On December 11, 1790, the troops of A.V. Suvorov stormed the Izmail fortress - the way to Istanbul was opened for Russian troops. The actions of the young Black Sea Fleet, commanded by F.F. Ushakov, were successful. In 1790, he defeated the Turkish fleet in the Kerch Strait and at Fort Hajibey. In 1791, Ushakov defeated the Turkish fleet at Cape Kalyakriya. In 1791 Yassakh Peace was signed between Turkey and Russia. The border between Turkey and Russia was established along the Dniester. Vast lands of the Azov-Black Sea coast (Novorossiya and Crimea-Tavrida) were annexed to Russia.

Russia and the West

In the 70s of the XVIII century. During the war for the independence of the North American states, Russia fought with England saw With Declaration of Armed Neutrality.

Taking advantage of the deep crisis and anarchy in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Austria, Prussia and Russia in the 70-90s. XVIII century conducted three partitions of Poland, eliminating its statehood. According to the first partition of 1772, the eastern part of Belarus along the Western Dvina and the Upper Dnieper went to Russia. According to the second partition of 1793, Russia received Right Bank Ukraine and the central part of Belarus with Minsk. In 1794, Polish patriots led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko began an uprising , trying to defend the independence of Poland. It was suppressed by Russian tsarism. In 1795, the third partition of Poland took place, according to which Lithuania, Western Belarus, Volyn were transferred to Russia and Courland was legally secured.

After the outbreak of the revolution in France in 1789, Russia waged an active struggle against the revolutionary country. Under Catherine II, aid was provided to opponents of the revolution in France through the Russian embassy. In Russia, the works of French educators were banned, and censorship was tightened. In 1792, diplomatic relations with France were severed, and the import of French goods into Russia was canceled. In 1793, Russia entered into an agreement with England, Prussia and Austria, obliging them to help them with troops and money in the fight against France. Russia was prevented from taking part in the intervention against France by the war with Sweden (1788-1790) and events in Poland.

The fight against revolutionary France became the core of Paul I’s foreign policy. A coalition consisting of England, Russia, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples was created against France, which launched its actions in Italy, the Mediterranean and Switzerland. In the summer of 1789, F.F. Ushakov’s fleet entered the Adriatic Sea and captured the Ionian Islands. After the assault, the powerful French fortress of Corfu was taken. In 1799, Russian sailors captured the port of Brindisi, and a landing force was landed on the Apennine Peninsula, expelling the French from Naples and Rome.

The center of Allied action on land was French-occupied Northern Italy and Switzerland. The allied forces were led by A.V. Suvorov, who completed his brilliant Italian campaign. A.V. Suvorov, with an army many times inferior to the enemy, inflicted lightning strikes on him, preventing him from combining forces.

On April 16-17, 1799, the Russians won victories at the river. Adda, opening the way to Milan and Turin. In five weeks, all of Northern Italy was liberated. This success was consolidated by victories in June 1799 at Trebbia and in August of the same year at Novi.

Instead of moving to France and the Rhine, as Suvorov proposed, he was forced to carry out the order of Paul I to transfer troops across the Alps to Switzerland to join the corps of A.M. Rimsky-Korsakov. It was an unprecedented transition. On September 13, 1799, the Russians captured the Saint-Gotthard Pass, and the next day they defeated the French at the Devil's Bridge and broke into Switzerland, but were surrounded by superior French forces. Having lost 7 thousand people in fierce battles, Suvorov nevertheless escaped from encirclement.

The Swiss campaign further strained relations in the coalition and led to Russia's withdrawal from the war. Paul I entered into an alliance with Napoleon and broke off relations with England.

Related information.

In the 2nd half of the 18th century. state formations were being formed and, as a consequence, territories were changing and borders were being consolidated. Leading states sought to increase their possessions and expand their spheres of influence in the world. This was a good time for Russia to pursue an aggressive policy, since its main rivals in the international arena were in crisis: Sweden and Poland were weakened by the Northern War, Turkey entered a period of decline. Under these conditions, Russia took an imperial-force approach in solving territorial problems.

In 1768, France, concerned about Russia's successes in Poland, provoked Turkey into declaring war on Russia. The fighting took place on the territory of the Danube principalities, in the Crimea and Transcaucasia. The commander-in-chief of the Balkan Front, General P.A. Rumyantsev, using new tactics in the formation of infantry (square formation), won a brilliant victory over the Turks near Khotyn in 1769 and occupied all of Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1770, Rumyantsev beat the Turks in the battles of the Larga and Kagul rivers. The Russian fleet under the command of G.A. Spiridonov and S.K. Craig, having rounded Europe, suddenly appeared in the Mediterranean Sea and in the Battle of Chesma Bay on June 25-26, 1770, almost completely destroyed the Turkish fleet. In 1771, Russian troops occupied Crimea. During military operations on land, the corps under the command of A.V. Suvorov achieved brilliant victories. In 1774, the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace treaty was concluded. Russia received the territory between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug, the Azov coast and the Kerch Strait. Türkiye recognized the independence of the Crimean Khanate and Russia's right to own a fleet.

In 1775, Russian troops occupied the Zaporozhye Sich and, having resettled the Cossacks in the Kuban, ceased its existence.

In 1783, Catherine II annexed Crimea to Russia and concluded the Treaty of Georgievsk with Georgia, taking it under her protectorate and protection from Turkey.

In 1787, Türkiye, seeking to regain lost territories, declared war on Russia. The fate of this warrior was decided by the victories of Suvorov near Kinburn in 1787, at Focsani and Rymnik in 1789. In 1790, the main stronghold of the Turkish troops - the Izmail fortress - was taken. The successes of the ground operation were consolidated by the victories of the Russian fleet.

In 1791, the Yassy Peace Treaty was concluded, which confirmed the terms of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace. A new border was established in the southwest along the Dniester River, in the Caucasus along the Kuban River. Türkiye has renounced its claims to Georgia.

Taking advantage of the difficult struggle between Russia and Turkey in 1788, Sweden attempted to seize possessions on the shores of the Baltic Sea. Having suffered a number of defeats on land and in naval battles, in 1790 Sweden signed the Treaty of Revel on the terms of maintaining borders.

The economic decline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was caused by the weakness of the central government. Polish reformers were influenced by the French Revolution and introduced a new constitution in the Polish Sejm. Catherine II and the Prussian king Frederick William decided to jointly fight the revolutionary “infection”. In 1793, Russian troops occupied Warsaw, Prussian troops occupied the western provinces of Poland.

In 1772, an agreement was concluded between Russia, Prussia and Austria on the division of Poland. Russia received part of Eastern Belarus. The second partition of Poland took place in 1793: all of Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine went to Russia.

In 1794, Polish patriots raised an uprising under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko, which was suppressed by Russian troops. The third partition of Poland occurs, as a result of which it ceases to exist as a state. The lands of Western Belarus, Western Ukraine, Livonia and Courland were annexed to Russia.

The acquisition of new territories significantly increased economic and human resources, and Russia's political weight increased. The population of Russia by 1796 reached 36 million, compared to 20 million people at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II (1762).

Meanwhile, the main theater of military operations was in southern Russia. In 1788, the military operations of the Russian army focused on the assault on the most important Turkish fortress of Ochakov. The 132,000-strong army of G.A. operated here. Potemkin and the Black Sea Fleet, since the main forces of the Turkish fleet (about 100 combat units) were stationed in Ochakov harbor. The fighting began at sea.

In the battle at Fr. Zmeiny was defeated by the squadron of the famous F.F. Ushakova. The Turkish rowing flotilla was destroyed in the Dnieper-Bug estuary. The Turks suffered huge losses in manpower (about 6 thousand killed and wounded and about 2 thousand prisoners).

In December 1788, Russian troops launched a decisive and successful assault on Ochakov. Somewhat earlier, the 50,000-strong army of P.A. Rumyantseva took Khotyn. In the summer of 1789, when Turkish troops numbering 30 thousand people, having crossed the Danube, headed towards Focsani, the Austrians retreated and called on the Russians for help. The Allies were rescued by the 10,000-strong corps of A.V. Suvorov. who immediately attacked the Turks at Focsani. After 9 hours of stubborn resistance, the Turks could not withstand the bayonet attack and fled. Unfortunately, the success of this victory is due to the position of G.A. Potemkin was not developed by the offensive of Russian troops.

An even more significant victory was won by the brilliant strategist A.V. Suvorov over the 100,000-strong army of the Ottoman Empire. In the fall of 1789, joining his forces (7 thousand people) with the Austrian ones (18 thousand people), A.V. Suvorov, using reconnaissance, suddenly attacked the Turks standing in three groups between the Rymna and Rymnik rivers, losing 45 people killed and 133 wounded. The Turks killed about 17 thousand people. The secret of this phenomenal success was the high training of the troops and the fighting qualities of the Russian soldier.

Such a huge defeat decided the success of the campaign of 1789. Russia advanced its troops to the lower reaches of the Danube. The fortresses of Hajibey, Akkerman, and Bendery were taken. Russian troops took strong positions between the Dniester and Seret rivers. Under the influence of defeats, the Ottoman Empire entered into peace negotiations, but under pressure from England and Prussia abandoned them. The war for Russia continued with both the Ottoman Empire and Sweden.

England and Prussia continued vigorous actions against Russia. Prussia worked hard to ensure that anti-Russian forces sharply increased in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russia was forced to withdraw its troops from there in 1789. In 1790, Prussia even managed to conclude an alliance treaty with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Double pressure from England and Prussia and direct threats of declaring war forced Austria to withdraw from the war in 1790. This complicated the situation for Russia, however, the 1790 campaign was successful for it. First of all, it was a series of important victories of the Black Sea Fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov, the capture of a number of fortresses and the famous assault on the Izmail fortress with its 8-meter rampart and ditch, 12 m wide. The Turks put up desperate resistance, giving up every house and every stone in battle. As a result of the 6-hour battle, the fortress was taken by the “weapon of Russian bayonets,” which was terrible for the Turks. The losses of the Turks were enormous - 26 thousand killed and 9 thousand prisoners. Losses of troops A.V. Suvorov - 5 thousand killed. This assault went down in the history of Russian military art as an unprecedented heroic feat of Russian soldiers led by one of the greatest commanders of Russia.

Russia's actions in the war with Sweden were also successful. In 1789, Russian troops launched an offensive in Finland. The Russian fleet won the battle in Rochensalm. In the spring of 1790, Russian sailors won two more naval battles with the Swedes (at Krasnaya Gorka), but lost one battle.

The assault on Izmail, and most importantly, the successes of the Russians in Sweden had a sobering effect on the Swedish government. Peace negotiations began in March 1790, ending in August with the conclusion of peace on status quo ante bellum terms. This was an undoubted defeat for British and Prussian diplomats. However, England was far from admitting this defeat. On the contrary, she again strained all her strength to achieve her goal. W. Pitt now focused on creating an anti-Russian coalition in Europe, which was to include Prussia, the Ottoman Empire, Denmark, Sweden and even the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. They also sought a break with Russia from Austria. For Russian diplomacy this was the most difficult test. It took inexhaustible flexibility, dexterity and caution to neutralize the pressure of England and Prussia. And we were talking about presenting Russia with an ultimatum within 10 days, demanding that it abandon the conquered Ochakov and accept English mediation in negotiations with the Porte. England itself was already preparing a war with Russia. Catherine's government urgently redeployed troops to the west and rearmed the Baltic Fleet (up to 32 battleships).

But the war did not take place, firstly, because a pan-European coalition did not work out: only the Ottoman Empire was ready to fight. Secondly, W. Pitt underestimated the rapidly growing opposition to his policies within the country.

The failure of William Pitt's plans immediately led to the collapse of the Triple Alliance. The situation for Russia has become more favorable. True, Turkey still remained, but the campaign of 1791 and new victories of the Russian army and Russian fleet forced Porto to talk about peace.

In July 1791, the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Prince N.V. Repnin signed the preliminary conditions for peace in Galati. Following this, a congress began in Iasi. The Ottoman Empire, according to the Treaty of Yassy of December 23, 1791, ceded to Russia all the lands of the Black Sea region up to the river. Dniester, gave Ochakov. The Ottoman Empire also pledged to prevent attacks by the Akhaltsikhe Pasha on the King of Kartli and to compensate for damages for raids in the North Caucasus. But at the same time, Moldova, Bessarabia and Wallachia remained in the hands of the Porte, and the question of the protectorate of Georgia was not resolved.

Thus ended the second most difficult war for Russia with the Ottoman Empire.

CHAPTER 4. RUSSIA AND THE REVOLUTION IN FRANCE. SECTIONS OF THE Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

In the attitude of Russian tsarism to the events in France, two stages can be traced. At the first stage, which did not last long, however, the royal court viewed the outbreak of the revolution as an event of everyday life, that is, as a revolt of the hungry mob, which the royal power was able to quickly cope with. Neither Catherine nor her entourage considered what was happening in Paris to be the result of deep social contradictions, but associated it with temporary financial difficulties and the personal qualities of the hapless king. “What a king Louis XVI is,” exclaimed the empress, having received news of the overthrow of the king, “he is drunk every evening and he is ruled by whoever wants.” Moreover, the Empress considered it possible to continue the policy of rapprochement with France in order to oppose the alliance with England to England.

As the revolution developed and the feudal order was decisively broken, the mood of the ruling circles in St. Petersburg changed. They soon became convinced that the revolution threatened the fate of the throne not only in Paris, but also in all the feudal-absolutist regimes of Europe. Catherine was also convinced of something else: Louis XVI and the French nobility could not restore the old order on their own. The fears of the Russian court were shared by the holders of the thrones of Austria and Prussia.

In 1790, an alliance between Austria and Prussia was concluded with the aim of military intervention in the internal affairs of France. It was not possible to immediately realize these intentions, since Austria, Russia and Prussia were preoccupied with the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russia, in addition, was at war with the Ottoman Empire. At this stage, the absolutist regimes limited themselves to developing plans for intervention and providing material assistance to the French emigration and the counter-revolutionary nobility within the country. Catherine loaned the French princes 2 million rubles to build a mercenary army. She became the soul of the coalition created to fight revolutionary France.

According to the Russian-Swedish alliance, Gustav III undertook to land troops in the Austrian Netherlands, which were to be joined by troops of the French princes, as well as Austria and Prussia. Catherine, instead of the troops engaged in the Russian-Turkish war, pledged to issue a subsidy in the amount of 300 thousand rubles until its end.

The coalition's performance did not take place for two reasons: the death of Leopold II and the assassination of Gustav III forced the postponement of the campaign; but the main reason was that the monarchical regimes discovered the advance of the ideas of revolution to the borders of their own dominions and considered it their first priority to stop this advance. We are talking about events in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

This federal state included Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania in its composition, although it retained the state border, the right of external relations, its own code of laws - the Lithuanian Statute, had a separate budget, customs system and armed forces, but, having linked its fate with Poland, with its weak royal power and self-will gentry, shared her fate. The country's independence under the rule of anarchy was ephemeral - practically the Lithuanian feudal lords depended on the general Sejm, the majority of which were Poles.

The weakness of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth gave rise to interference in its internal affairs by powerful neighbors and made it possible to carry out its first partition. But even in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth there were forces interested in the weakness royal power.

In 1791, they managed to overcome their resistance and approve a new constitution at the Sejm. The Constitution of May 3, 1791 preserved the feudal privileges of the nobility, the peasants remained in serfdom, and Catholicism retained the importance of the state religion. However, the constitution prohibited the organization of separatist confederations and transferred executive power to the king. The division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth into the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was abolished, and on their basis a united Poland was proclaimed. Strengthening statehood was contrary to the interests of Prussia, Austria and Russia. They had a formal reason for interfering in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, since it was not allowed to change the constitution and cancel the liberum veto. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth itself, some magnates and gentry opposed the strengthening of royal power. As a sign of protest against the constitution, on May 3, 1791, with the support of Catherine II, they organized a confederation in Targowice and turned to Russia for help. At the call of the confederation, Russian and Prussian troops were sent to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and conditions were created for a new partition. In January 1793, a Russian-Prussian treaty was concluded, according to which Polish lands (Gdansk, Torun, Poznan) went to Prussia, and Russia was reunited with Right Bank Ukraine and the central part of Belarus, from which the Minsk province was formed.

Topic 18. Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century.

1. Russia in the system of European relations. The main directions and goals of Russian foreign policy.
2. “Eastern Question” in Russian foreign policy. Russian-Turkish wars.
3. Russia and US education. “Declaration of Armed Neutrality.”
4. Russia's participation in the sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
5. Russia and the events of the Great French Revolution.

Sources and literature

Anisimov E.V., Kamensky A.B. Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries: History. Historian. Document. - M.: Science. 1994.
Bokhanov A.N. “Love your service to your dear Fatherland...” (Prince G.A. Potemkin-Tauride) // Sakharov A.N., Nazarov V.D., Bokhanov A.N. Devotees of Russia. - M.: Russian word. 1999. -S. 319 - 330.
Kamensky A.B. Catherine II // Questions of history. - 1989. - No. 3. - P. 62 - 88.
Kamensky A.B. “Under the shadow of Catherine.” Second half of the 18th century. - St. Petersburg: Lenizdat, 1992.
Nazarov V.D. Raising the honor of the Russian flag (F.F. Ushakov) // Sakharov A.N., Nazarov V.D., Bokhanov A.N. Devotees of Russia. - M.: Russian word. 1999. - pp. 331 - 351.
Essays on the history of the USSR. XVIII century / Ed. B.B. Kafengauza. - M.: Uchpedgiz, 1962.
Rostunov I.P. Generalissimo Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov. - M.: Education, 1989.

In the second half of the 18th century. Russia played an increasingly active role in international relations. It is a member of European military-political alliances and, thanks to its strong army, has significant influence in them.
Russian diplomacy, which previously had to deal with permanent allies and adversaries, by this time had learned to maneuver in the complex relations of the European powers. Ideal state interests was associated with the spread of the ideas of rationalism to the field of foreign policy. The influence of foreign officers is declining. Russian officers and commanders take their place. Russian army is gaining more and more national character. Who was at the head of the Russian foreign policy department in the second half of the 18th century? Consider the “Northern System” project by N.I. Panin.
The main foreign policy objectives facing Russia in the second half of the 18th century were: the struggle for access to the southern seas - the Black and Azov; liberation from Polish domination of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus and the unification of all Eastern Slavs in one state; a certain direction of the foreign policy actions of the Russian autocracy, including the fight against revolutionary France, in connection with the Great French Revolution that began in 1789; asserting its interests in European politics, Russia sought to play the role of guarantor of the independence of the British colonies in North America.
Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774 In the 60s of the XVIII century. A complex political game is taking place in Europe. The degree of rapprochement between certain countries was determined by the strength of the contradictions between them. Russia had its strongest contradictions with France and Austria. Determine what they were.
The Russian government was pushed to take active action in the south by the interests of the country's security, the needs of the nobility, who sought to obtain the richest southern lands, and developing industry and trade, which dictated the need to access the Black Sea coast.
Türkiye, incited by France and England, declared war on Russia in the fall of 1768. After the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. Brilliant victories were won on land: in 1770 under the command of the talented commander P.A. Rumyantsev, in 1771 under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgoruky, in 1774 - Major General A.V. Suvorov. In the famous Battle of Chesma at sea, under the command of Admiral G.A. Spiridonov, A.G. Orlov and S.K. Greig, a victory was also won. Trace the progress of military operations in the main companies by year.
Under the terms of the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace (1774), Russia received: access to the Black Sea; steppes of the Black Sea region - Novorossiya; the right to have your own fleet in the Black Sea; right of passage through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits. In addition, Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda, passed to Russia; The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey; Türkiye paid an indemnity in the amount of 4 million rubles; The Russian government achieved the right to act as a defender of the legitimate rights of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.
For brilliant victories in the Russian-Turkish war, Catherine II generously awarded her commanders with orders and personalized weapons. In addition, A.G. Orlov began to be called Chesmensky, V.M. Dolgorukov - Krymsky, A.P. Rumyantsev - Zadunaysky. A.V. Suvorov received a gold sword with diamonds.
Russian-Turkish War of 1787 - 1791. Since 1780, a rapprochement between Russia and Austria began on the basis of common interests in relation to Turkey and Poland.
Türkiye did not want to come to terms with Russia's assertion in the Black Sea. In response to Turkey's attempt to return Crimea to its rule, Russian troops occupied the Crimean peninsula, which became part of Russia. When and as a result of what events did Crimea become part of Russia? What consequences did this have?
Sevastopol was founded as a base for the fleet (1783). For his success in annexing Crimea (the old name of Taurida), T.A. Potemkin received a prefix to his title “Prince of Tauride”.
In 1787, Türkiye presented an ultimatum with a number of unacceptable demands. The Second Russian-Turkish War took place in a difficult international situation for Russia. At this time, an alliance between England, Prussia and Holland took shape, aimed at undermining Russia’s position in the Baltic. These countries provoked Sweden, and the war with it in 1788 - 1790 weakened Russia's forces, although the peace treaty of 1790 did not introduce any territorial changes between Russia and Sweden. At this time, only Austria provided support to Russia, and then only with insignificant forces. Nevertheless, this war also showed the superiority of the Russian army.
During these years, the leadership talent of A.V. Suvorov especially manifested itself. In 1787, he defeated the Turks during their siege of Kinburn, then in 1788 he took the powerful fortress of Ochakov, and in 1789 he won two convincing victories over vastly superior enemy forces at Focshanny and on the Rymnik River, for which he received the title of count Rymniksky.
Of particular importance was the capture of Izmail (1790), the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube. After careful preparation, A.V. Suvorov set the time for the assault. Wanting to avoid bloodshed, he sent a letter to the commandant of the fortress demanding surrender: “24 hours - freedom, the first shot - already bondage, assault - death.” The Turkish Pasha refused: “The Danube would sooner stop in its flow, the sky would fall to the ground, than Ishmael would surrender.” After a 10-hour assault, Izmail was taken. A student of A.V. Suvorov, commander M.I. Kutuzov, glorified himself in battle.
Along with the ground forces, the fleet, commanded by Admiral F.F. Ushakov, operated successfully. In the battle of Cape Kaliakria in 1791, the Turkish fleet was destroyed.
According to the Yassy Peace Treaty (signed in Yassy), Russia received the following acquisitions: Turkey recognized Crimea as Russian possession; the Dniester River became the border between the two countries; the territory between the Bug and Dniester rivers became part of Russia; Türkiye recognized Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783.
As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, the economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the Mediterranean countries expanded. The Crimean Khanate was liquidated - a constant source of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands. Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1795), Ekaterinodar (1793, now Krasnodar) and others were founded in the south of Russia.
Russia and US education. One of the significant international events was the struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution, which led to the creation of the United States of America.
Disagreements between England and Russia had a beneficial effect on the course of the American Revolution. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the “Declaration of Armed Neutrality,” supported by the majority of European countries. Ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by a belligerent fleet. This resulted in England abandoning attempts to organize a naval blockade of the American coast and objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution.
At the same time, Russia participated in the colonization North America. Movement of Cossacks and Russian settlers in the 16th-17th centuries. through Siberia and the Far East led in 1784 to the landing of G.I. Shelekhov in Alaska and the emergence of “Russian America” - permanent Russian settlements in Alaska, and then in California.
Partitions of Poland. The strengthening of Prussia, Austria, Russia and the constant weakening of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth led to its divisions.
According to the first partition (1772) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, part of eastern Belarus went to Russia. According to the second (1793), Russia received the remaining part of eastern and central Belarus with Minsk, Volyn and Podolia. According to the third partition (1795), western Belarus, western Volyn, Lithuania, and Courland went to Russia.
Under power Russian emperors almost all the lands of the Eastern Slavs who were part of the Kievan Rus, excluding the Galician lands with Lvov (Galicia), which became part of Austria. Evaluate these contradictory events.
War with revolutionary France. The Great French Revolution of 1789 and the execution of King Louis XVI created a new political situation in Europe. Relations between Russia and France were severed. Russia entered into an alliance with Prussia, England and Austria for a joint struggle against revolutionary France. Why did Russia support the counter-revolutionary forces of France? It was an alliance of the reactionary forces of Europe against the hotbed of ideas of freedom and democracy, which was France. At the same time, the aggressive policy of Napoleon Bonaparte, who seized power in the country in 1799, gave the actions of the Allies a liberating character.
In 1789 - 1800, the Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov captured a number of Greek islands captured by the French. Russian landing troops entered Naples and Rome. In 1799, the offensive of the Russian army began under the command of A.V. Suvorov, operating together with Austrian troops. The heroic transition of Russian troops through the Alps to Switzerland ended with success. However, at this time the contradictions between England, Austria and Russia intensified. The Russian army was returned to its homeland. Emperor Paul I began political rapprochement with France, seeing it as an ally in the fight against England. He sent Russian Cossacks to India, which was a former colony of England. However, his murder in 1801 thwarted the plans of the coalition between France and Russia.
Thus, thanks to an active foreign policy, Russia in the second half of the 18th century. became a great European power. This was a victory for the policy of adaptation (adjustment) to Europe, begun by Peter I. However, Russia's political role in Europe far exceeded its economic position in the European market, similar to the place of Prussia, Spain, Italy, Portugal, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Russia remained a socio-economically backward country, which made its position in the system of European civilization unstable and contradictory.

In the second half of the 18th century. Russia solved several foreign policy problems:

1) the first direction is south. Russia fought for access to the shores of the Black and Azov Seas, development and settlement of the southern black soil steppes. This led to long wars with Turkey and the Crimean Khanate;

2) the second direction - the issue of liberation from foreign domination of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus captured by Poland took a significant place in Russia’s foreign policy;

3) third direction. It was predetermined by the Great French Revolution that began in 1789. Russia waged an active struggle against revolutionary France. In the second half of the 18th century. The foreign policy of the Russian government in the southern direction significantly intensified. He was pushed to this by the interests of the country's security and the needs of the nobility, who sought to take possession of the rich southern lands. Industry and trade, which developed rapidly, also dictated the need for access to the Black Sea.

Russo-Turkish wars

In the southern direction, Russia has repeatedly entered into confrontation with Turkey.

1. During the Russian-Turkish War of 1768–1774. Russia managed to recapture Azov and Taganrog from Turkey. In the Battle of Chesma, the Russian fleet defeated the Turkish squadron. During military operations, Russian troops captured Crimea and could move to Istanbul. At this time, Türkiye asked for peace. In this war, Russian commanders showed their talent: P.A. Rumyantsev, A.V. Suvorov, V.M. Dolgorukov; The actions of the fleet were led by: L.G. Orlov, G.A. Spiridonov and I.S. Greig.

2. In 1787–1791 Russia again entered the war with Turkey. In military operations, Türkiye demanded the return of Crimea from Russia. But the Russian army under the leadership of A.V. Suvorova defeated Turkish military units at Kinburn, Fokshani and on the Rymnik River. G.A. Potemkin occupied the Turkish fortress of Ochakov on the Dnieper estuary. Great importance There was also the capture of Izmail, a fortress that was the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube. In this battle, the future famous commander M.I. distinguished himself. Kutuzov. Successful actions The Russian fleet, led by Admiral F.F., was at sea. Ushakov.

As a result of this war:

– Crimea was annexed to Russian Empire;

– the Crimean Khanate, which was a constant source of aggression on the southern borders of Russia, was liquidated;

– Türkiye also recognized Russian patronage of Georgia.

At the end of the 1780s. Russia waged military operations against Sweden, which sought to regain lands lost in the Northern War.

Russia also participated in resolving the Polish issue. As a result of the partitions of Poland (1772–1795), the following were annexed to Russia: Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Courland, Volyn.

Russia's participation in the active struggle against revolutionary France began under Catherine II and continued by Paul I. In 1799, Russian troops under the command of Suvorov successfully fought in Northern Italy. Under the command of Ushakov, the Russian fleet occupied the Ionian Islands and the fortress of Corfu. It was during these military operations that Suvorov made his unprecedented crossing of the Alps.