Modernization of Japan in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Features of the modernization of Japan Modernization of Japan in the 19th century
Goals and objectives of the lesson.
Show the features of the formation of imperialism in a country with traditional Eastern civilization. Students should take into account that Japan, without any outside interference, but using the achievements of the West, modernized industrial production, education and the country's management system, while maintaining its traditions and familiar way of life. Based on the material on this topic, students should see the effect of the law of uneven development of capitalism.
Planned results.
Students will learn that clashes with the West threatened the loss of independence and in these conditions the young state, using the traditional Japanese tendency to useful borrowing and lack of contempt for foreign culture, prepared Japanese society to understand the need for modernization and contributed to reforms that destroyed traditional society. The development of capitalism in the country took place in conditions of a narrow domestic market. The poverty of the overwhelming majority of the population, the growth of nationalist sentiments - all this made Japan an aggressive country that sought to seize foreign lands.
Equipment:
- map “Japan in the 19th century”;
- Yudovskaya A.Ya., Baranov P.A. “New History”, textbook;
- tables;
- excerpts from documents.
Basic concepts: shogun, consul, modernization, extraterritoriality, Yamato, Meiji, samurai, “bushido”, Shintaism, nationalism, traditionalism.
During the classes
1. History of Japan at the end of the 19th century - beginning. The 20th century is full of important events. They are associated with Japan's entry into the capitalist path of development. The history of Japan of this period has much in common with the countries of Europe and the United States. At the same time, Japan had specific features that were associated with its geographical location and historical development. Let us get acquainted with new concepts and terms.
Nationalism - an ideology based on the idea of national exclusivity and isolation.
Traditionalism – sustainability of Japanese civilization based on traditional medieval values.
Meiji – “Enlightened government” is a time of reforms, thanks to which the country began to rapidly turn into a great power.
Bushido – samurai code of honor.
Samurai– closed military caste (samurau - to serve, soldier, nobleman).
2. Until the mid-19th century, Russia was a “closed country.” This led to the economic, political and military weakness of the country. In 1854, the United States, using force of arms, forced the shogun's government to “open” the country. A treaty of peace and friendship was signed. Following the United States, European countries were also allowed into Japan. They imposed unequal treaties on Japan, which meant the forced opening of the country.
3. Late 60s The 19th century was marked by events that influenced the entire further course of development of the state. These events in Japanese history are usually called “Meiji Imi” or “Meiji Revolution”. It is associated with the restoration of the power of the emperor and the overthrow of the “shogunate” (the rule of the feudal aristocracy, “shogun”), which relied on the military power of the samurai, the power of the emperor was only nominal. In 1867, the shogun abdicated power in favor of the 15-year-old Emperor Mutsihito.
Report on Mutsihito, senquain.
Japan has entered an era of modernization. The task facing the government was very difficult: to carry out modernization according to the Western model and not lose its independence and traditions. By working with the table, we will find out how this problem was solved.
Filling out a table using a tutorial
(commented reading).
Meiji reforms.
| Direction of reforms | Contents of reforms | The importance of reforms |
| Agrarian reform | Part of the land was transferred to the peasants under certain conditions. | The capitalist structure began to develop in agriculture. |
| Administrative reform | Confiscation of part of the lands and deprivation of power from the princes. | Destroyed the power of the princes and the division of the country into principalities. |
| Military reform | Universal conscription was introduced. | The military-feudal structure was eliminated. The Japanese army acquired high combat effectiveness. |
| Currency reform | A single currency was introduced - the yen. | Created conditions for the formation of a single national market. |
| Education reform | A decree on compulsory primary education was adopted | The class education system was destroyed. |
Political structure: in the 80s A widespread movement for a constitution unfolded in the country. A special mission was sent to Europe and the USA to familiarize themselves with and choose the most suitable version of the constitution. The mission chose the Prussian version of Bismarck.
Drawing up a diagram of “Political structure” using a document.
Suffrage: compare tables. Remember what property qualifications are?
New features economic development: The first monopolistic associations appeared in the country in the 90s. XIX century.
What was the industrial policy of the Meiji government? (Working with a document).
Which companies are mentioned in the textbook?
4. Changes in the way of life of society. (Individual task).
5. Japanese foreign policy. (Individual task).
Conclusion: Japan is the only non-European state. Whose level of development by the beginning of the 20th century reached the level of leading European countries. The development of imperialism took place in conditions of a narrow domestic market, poverty of the vast majority of the population, and this made Japan an aggressive country that sought to seize foreign lands.
Cinquains about Japan.
Summing up the lesson, homework: § 24, work with terms, question. 1 on page 254.
Lesson topic: Japan on the path of modernization: Eastern morality - Western technology.
Lesson objectives:
Characterize the socio-economic and political development Japan in the first half of the 19th century;
Find out the causes and significance of the Meiji Revolution (1867-1868);
Reveal the essence of the reforms of the 60-70s. and the Constitution of 1889;
Determine the reasons for Japan's aggressive foreign policy;
Continue to develop the ability to independently work with documents as sources of new knowledge, highlight the main thing, use previously acquired knowledge, establish cause-and-effect relationships, highlight major and minor events, work with a historical map;
Develop students’ conceptual apparatus;
Help students develop a tolerant attitude towards people different cultures.
Equipment: presentation, handouts, documents
During the classes
I. Introductory part.
1. Organizational moment.
Greeting in Japanese: "kon-ni i-va"(Good afternoon)
Sit down, do-ju(Please). What language do you think I addressed you in?
What does this have to do with today's lesson?
2. Water conversation
We studied events that took place in the 19th century in Europe, North and Latin America.
Guys, tell me, what was common in the development of European countries and the USA? (modernization of the economy, expansion of influence on other countries and their conquest)
What place did Latin American countries occupy in these events? (they were underdeveloped, national liberation movements against Spain and Portugal took place there, and the influence of the United States was increasing)
And today we will begin to consider the features of the development of Asian countries.
- Remember what were the largest states that existed in the East at the beginning of the 19th century? ? (India, China, Japan)
- Do you think that Asian states were more economically developed than Western states or not? Why?
- Do you think the states of the East will be able to maintain their position unchanged? Why? ( Western countries needed markets and expansion of their influence and would try to subjugate the weaker Eastern countries)
(against the background of music) Among Asian countries, one state occupied a special place; you are now hearing the music of this country, which in its development by the end of the 19th century approached the developed countries of Europe. What state are we talking about?
1. Japan entered the 19th century, being a distant outskirts of the world developed by Europeans. Like other countries in Asia and Africa, it became the object of expansion of Western countries, but did not become dependent on them. It managed not only to withstand the onslaught of Western countries, but also to become one of the developed countries. In today's lesson we need to find out how Japan managed to achieve this position? Guess what problems Japan needed to solve. (carry out transformations in the field of economics)
- What is the name of the improvement process? , introduction of innovations that meet modern requirements? (modernization)
- Formulate topic of today's lesson:"Japan on the path of modernization"
What problems need to be solved? (what changes have occurred, what are their consequences?)
- Determine the main problem of the country in the process of its modernization:
II. Main part. Learning new material. Communicate the topic and objectives of the lesson.
1. Features geographical location
- What are the features of the geographical location of Japan? (map work: textbook, slide)
As you can see on the world map, Japan is an island country. In the mid-19th century, the Japanese lived mainly on four islands: Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and Hokkaido.
2. Features of the development of Japan until the middle of the 19th century.
Since the 12th century, the shogunate was established in Japan.
-What does shogunate mean? (Shogunate - a peculiar form of government of the feudal aristocracy in Japan, in which the emperor was the supreme ruler only nominally, and power actually belonged by inheritance to the head of a large feudal clan).
The first Europeans to visit Japan in 1542 were the Portuguese. Local princes began to buy weapons from the Portuguese. The British and Dutch followed the Portuguese into the country, and Japan's trade with Europe gradually developed. The Japanese government feared that the Europeans would be able to subjugate the country. Therefore, Shogun Tokugawa Iemitsu decided to close the country in the mid-17th century. An exception was made only for the Dutch, who helped the shogun in suppressing the peasant uprising. The only port open to them was Nagasaki.
- What do you think are the consequences of the artificial isolation of Japan?
(Low rates of economic development; The international position of the country was unstable. The military-technical backwardness of the country.)
Until the mid-19th century, Japan remained closed to foreigners and developed in accordance with traditions that had been preserved since the Middle Ages.
The United States and European countries began to look more and more closely at the Far East.
3. Introduce the forced opening of Japan
- Think about why the United States was interested in penetrating Japan?
Working with document p.249 - what are the reasons for the discovery of Japan
(Japan had important strategic position: 1. The country was of interest to the United States as transhipment base American ships sailing in the northern waters of the Pacific Ocean;
2. Japan was a convenient springboard to strengthen American positions in the Far East).
In 1853, an American military squadron led by Commander Matthew K. Perry arrived in Edo Bay on the island of Honshu, who gave the Japanese a letter from US President Fillmore, which expressed a desire to establish diplomatic relations with Japan. The Japanese asked for time to think. Perry said he will appear next year. In February 1854 he returned with ten warships. Perry demanded concessions from the Japanese, threatening intervention. On March 31, 1854, the Japanese-American Treaty of Peace and Friendship was signed, and Japan was forcibly opened to Western countries. Trade agreements were unequal. In fact, Japan became a semi-colony at the end of the 19th century.
In 1855, the first Russian-Japanese treaty was signed, according to which the Kuril Islands north of Iturup Island went to Russia, and Sakhalin remained in joint ownership.
Soon, similar agreements were signed with other European countries (England, France, Holland, etc.), which provided them with a number of benefits in trade with Japan and the right of extraterritoriality.
4. Determine the consequences of the opening of Japan. " The discovery of Japan had important consequences. Read textbook P.244 and determine the consequences of the discovery of Japan
(deterioration of the situation: rising arms costs, rising taxes, undermining national production due to the influx of foreign manufactured goods, export of gold, which undermined finances.
T. Oh, trade with Western countries has upset the Japanese economy. Cheap European goods poured into the country, which undermined national production. There was an understanding that, over the years of isolation, Japan had fallen behind Western countries technically and that modernization was necessary
More and more often in Japan one could hear the following speeches: “These barbarians bring us unnecessary luxuries, deprive us of basic necessities, ruin the people and strive to conquer Japan in the near future. It was our shogun who sowed the seeds of all disasters.”
- Who was considered responsible for the worsening situation? (shogun)
Massive discontent with the penetration of Europeans into Japan in 1868 gave rise to a movement against the shogun and foreigners, its participants advocated for the restoration of the real power of the emperor. The Japanese quickly and organizedly rebuilt, taking their own destiny into their own hands. The opposition to the shogun was led by local princes. Seeking an alternative to the shogun's rule, they turned to Emperor Mutsuhito. In 1868, a military coup (revolution) took place in Japan, during which imperial power was restored. The 15-year-old Emperor Mutsihito took charge of the country.
- Why do you think the shogunate and its coalition were defeated?
5. Consider the content of the Meiji reforms.
The period of Emperor Mutsuhito's reign was called the Meiji era - "enlightened rule". On April 6, 1868, the Emperor made a solemn statement in which he put forward the following program of action:
- “A broad assembly will be created, and all state affairs will be decided in accordance with public opinion.
All people, both rulers and ruled, must unanimously devote themselves to the advancement of the nation.
All people will be allowed to pursue their own aspirations and develop their own activities.
All bad practices of the past will be abolished; justice and impartiality as understood by everyone will be respected.
Knowledge will be borrowed from all over the world, and in this way the foundations of the empire will be strengthened."
- What is the essence of the program? on the introduction of the achievements of European civilization in Japan.
Emperor Mutsuhito agreed with the Japanese proverb: “When the blind have a blind guide, they fall into a pit.” The motto of the reforms was “ fukoku kyohei» (« rich country, strong army"). A policy of “enlightenment from above” was pursued. To get acquainted with the state of affairs in the West, it was created « », who, having visited 15 countries, brought home invaluable information about modern principles of society. The entire period of the Meiji era passed under the slogans: “Japanese spirit, European knowledge”, “Teaching others is always honorable, learning from others is never a shame.” Begins "Westernization" of Japan. Westernization - Japan’s borrowing from Western European states of the latest achievements of science and technology, the foundations of the political system and their implementation taking into account the local mentality (national traditions, customs, corporatism)
PHYSICAL MINUTE
Are you probably tired?
Get up! Hands up!
Stretch high and take a deep breath!
They gradually lowered their hands... There is no time for boredom in the lesson!
Right, left head - one and two, one and two.
They smiled at each other and leaned in slightly.
And now they bent back, straightened up, swayed...
And we sat down at our desks and continued to work.
The new government is carrying out a number of reforms. Students write down the reforms in a notebook and characterize their significance using textbook material from 244-245.
Name of the reform
Main events
The importance of reforms
Agrarian reform (1872-1873)
Securing private ownership of land, permission to buy and sell it
The emergence of landless peasants, who ensured the creation of a class of wage workers and the preservation of landownership
Military reform (1872)
Elimination of the samurai class, creation of a regular army
Formation of a disciplined army loyal to the government, the spirit of samurai was cultivated - the “Bushido Code”
Administrative-territorial reform (1871)
Abolition of principalities, introduction of division into 72 prefectures
Elimination of fragmentation, introduction of a unified management system in different parts states.
Financial reform (1868)
Replaced the old coins with a single one - the yen
Contributed to the expansion of the domestic market, the development of trade and industry, and the formation of banks
Educational Reform (1872)
According to the European (French) model, 5.5 thousand were founded. primary schools and 8 universities
Primary education became compulsory and accessible to women; by 1914 the Japanese were considered among the most educated people in the world
Judicial reform (1872)
Introduction general courts European type and laws for the whole country
Overcoming fragmentation, the emperor had the right to approve and issue laws; equality of citizens before the court, further centralization of the state
The Meiji reforms were aimed at overcoming the feudal backwardness of Japan, accelerating the development of capitalist relations, and increasing industrial production. The reforms brought Japan out of international isolation and integrated it into the global economy.
- What are the consequences of these reforms?( development of bourgeois relations, the beginning of industrialization and democratization of the country and society, strengthening the country's defense capability).
6
. Constitution of 1889
Along with changes in the economy, there were also changes in political life. Trade unions began to emerge, an organized labor movement emerged, and a liberal movement was taking shape. In 1880, the Liberals created the League for the Establishment of Parliament. The Emperor sent to Europe to study the experience of Western countries
a special delegation that had to choose the most suitable option for Japanese traditions of government. The first Japanese constitution was approved by the emperor in 1889. It gave the emperor broad rights. He was declared a "sacred and inviolable person." He had the right to declare and conclude peace, approve laws, convene and dissolve parliament, all officials in the state were subordinate to him, and was the commander-in-chief of the army and navy.
The constitution provided for the creation of a 2-chamber parliament. The upper chamber of peers consisted of members of the imperial family and dignitaries appointed by the emperor. Deputies of the lower house were elected. Men over 25 years of age who paid a tax of at least 15 yen received the right to vote. 1% of the population received the right to vote. Deputies had the right to discuss government bills, but did not have the right to pass laws themselves. The government was responsible only to the emperor. The constitution proclaimed fundamental civil rights.
7. To introduce the features of the development of Japan at the beginning of the 20th century.: Working with the textbook pp. 245-246 and sources
Japan has embarked on the path of accelerated modernization. The government actively patronized the development of industry and trade, seeing in the industrialization of the country protection from the danger of foreign interference in the affairs of the state. By order of the emperor, “model factories” were built at the expense of the state treasury, which were then sold or given to companies close to the imperial court. Equipment for these plants was purchased abroad. Mitsui and Mitsubishi companies received especially generous gifts. One foreigner who visited Japan before the First World War noted: “You can come to Japan on a ship owned by Mitsui, disembark at a port equipped by Mitsui, take a tram owned by Mitsui to a hotel built by the same Mitsui.” At the end of the 19th century, Japanese capitalism entered a monopoly stage of development. Trade could not develop without good roads. Therefore, the state itself took up railway construction.
The government sought to give the relationship between the bourgeoisie and workers the character of family ties. The capitalist, officials argued, is the head of the family, and the workers are its members. These relationships corresponded to the traditional ideas of ordinary Japanese about the need to work hard and obey the master in everything. Corporal punishment was used in factories.
What does the following data indicate?
Pig iron production increased by almost 6 times, steel in 69 once.
Coal production increased by 8,8 once.
Foreign trade increased by more than 20 once.
Industrial capital increased by 36 times, and banking in 2 times.
Thus, in the 90s, industrial growth began in Japan, as in European countries and the United States. New industries emerged: mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, etc. Western technologies were used. Large corporations turned into monopolies. Japan sought to penetrate the markets of other countries and built railways in Korea.
8. Foreign policy of Japan.
At the turn of the century in Japan, the idea of pan-Asianism was born, which stated: “Asia for Asians.” Supporters of this idea argued that only through unification with the help of Japan would Asia be able to resist the West. And for this it is necessary to extend the power of the Japanese emperor to the Asian peoples. After 1868, the militant samurai spirit could not be realized within the country. Therefore, it was embodied in Japan's aggressive policy.
Historical reference. (if there is time) From an article by Russian researcher G. Vostokov, published in 1904.“When it appeared in the 1850s. American-European squadrons, they (the Japanese) had to admit their powerlessness. The feeling of national pride, deeply wounded by the consciousness of the superiority of the Europeans, however, was not reconciled, and with their characteristic persistence and impetuosity, the Japanese set out to master this superiority, which, in their ideas, comes down to technical progress and military improvements, and not only to master, but and surpass. And so, at the age of thirty, they carried out a revolution in their country, in comparison with which our noisy European revolutions seem like marking time. If the Japanese were guided in this coup by a sense of national dignity, then national pride began to carry them further. Having established themselves in the idea that they were comparable to the Europeans in culture, the Japanese were not satisfied with the consciousness of such equality and began to dream of exclusive recognition of their people in the history of mankind.
1)Main directions of external expansion: (working with a map)
Japanese-Korean War - 1876, 1894, 1910.
Sino-Japanese War - 1894-1895. Russo-Japanese War - 1904-1905. Territorial acquisitions:
1895 - O. Taiwan. 1905 – Southern Sakhalin, Liaodong Peninsula.
1910 - Korea.
After Russo-Japanese War, Japan acquired the international status of a strong power that now had to be reckoned with.
9. Introduce changes in lifestyle (student message)
III. Consolidation.
So, guys, we have finished studying the topic. We need to make a general conclusion.
1. Let's return to our problem: How did the small island state of Japan avoid the fate of becoming a dependent (colonial) country?
2. Do you agree with the statement by James Fallows “Looking at the Sun”. “Japan during the Meiji era was unique in its systematic attempt to learn everything that the rest of the world had achieved up to that time and apply it as quickly as possible to Japan... To avoid foreign domination, the Japanese leadership began an onslaught of systematically studying the achievements of the rest of the world.”
2. Select from the list: factors that contributed to the development of Japan in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries;
consequences for Japan as a result of rapid economic development.
1. The forced “opening” of Japan.
2. The reign of shoguns from the Tokugawa clan.
3. Implementation of reforms by Emperor Meiji.
4. Domination of the Samurai.
5. Adoption of the Constitution of 1889
6. Modernization of Japan.
7. National traditions, nepotism, corporatism.
8. Borrowing European knowledge, achievements of science and technology.
9. The emergence of monopolistic associations - concerns - zaibatsu.
10. Tea ceremony.
11. Creation of exemplary enterprises
11. Signing of union treaties with European states.
12. Preservation of feudal relations.
13. The leading role of the state in the industrialization of the country.
14. Independence from European countries.
15. Preservation of landownership.
16. Aggressive foreign policy.
17. International status of a strong power.
Student response: as a result of the forced “opening” of Japan, reforms by Emperor Mutsuhito, the adoption of a new Constitution, borrowing the latest achievements of science and technology from European countries, as well as the leading role of the state in the industrialization of the country, while maintaining national traditions and corporatism, allowed Japan to carry out industrial modernization, which led to the emergence of monopolistic associations, zaibatsu, and the signing of union treaties with European states. This made it possible for Japan to pursue an aggressive foreign policy and, at the beginning of the twentieth century, gain the international status of a strong power.
IV. Summing up the lesson. Japan assimilated all the latest achievements of Europe and applied them not exactly in this form, no, she applied them to the extent necessary to strengthen her forces. Japan used Europe as a ladder to climb to the roof of the Far East
Reflection:
I found out….
I understand…
I am surprised…
It's hard for me to understand...
V. Homework.
Paragraph 27, learn the terms, fill out the table
TEST-Control
1. Until the mid-19th century, Japan was a “closed” country. This meant: a) the Japanese kept the doors closed; b) the leading countries of the world introduced a naval blockade; c) the Japanese people had no contact with foreigners.
2. From the beginning of the 17th century until 1968, the following was introduced in the country: a) samurai regime; b) shogun regime; c) kabuki mode; d) Yamoto mode.
3. The power of which Japanese emperor was overthrown as a result of the Meiji Revolution: a) Mutsuhito; b) Hirohito, c) Furukawa; d) Tokugawa.
4. What is the second name for Japan: a) Land of the Rising Moon; b) the land of the morning sun; c) the land of the rising sun; d) the country of the rising star.
5. What is the name of the Japanese currency: a) yen; b) crown; c) shekel; d) tanga.
6. What was the goal of the Meiji reforms: a) were aimed at overcoming feudal backwardness; b) to overcome the resistance of the samurai; c) to solve the food problem.
7. Indicate the dates of the Russian-Japanese War:
1) 1903-1905; 2) 1904-1905; 3) 1905-1906; 4) 1906-1907
8. What territories were captured by Japan in the late 19th – early 20th centuries:
9. According to the Constitution of 1889, Japan became:
A) absolute monarchy;
B) limited monarchy;
B) bourgeois monarchy;
10. Match:
A) The policy of building up military power, the arms race, 1. Modernization which is carried out by the ruling circles of a particular state.
B) Japan's borrowing from Western European states 2. Westernization of the latest achievements of science and technology, the foundations of the political system and their implementation taking into account the local mentality.
C) Renewal, improvement, processing in accordance with 3. Corporate spirit modern requirements, use of best practices and achievements.
D) Employment was for life and created a special atmosphere 4. Militarism of trust, responsibility for one’s work and solidarity with one’s employer, interest in the prosperity of the enterprise.
Z 
and during this period Japan, which by the middle of the 19th century had become virtually a semi-colony of Western countries, was the only one of the Eastern countries to become an advanced power that itself began colonial conquests.
What contributed to such a rapid rise of the country?
Possible personally significant problem: the combination of devotion to national traditions with the ability to borrow from other countries everything that is valuable for one’s country makes it possible to achieve a high level of economic development while preserving national culture
Cognitive tasks: 1. Think about why Japan became almost the only Eastern country that managed to resist the colonial policies of the West. 2. Do you agree that the success of Japan's modernization is due to the country's dynamic tradition, enriched by the West? Comment on this point of view and provide facts that support it. 4. Express your opinion on the question: why did the Japanese state pursue a policy of active intervention in the industrialization of the country?
Excerpt from the film “The Last Samurai” (2-3 min
4. Reforms of the “Meiji era”.
5.
Guys, list the main reasons for the rapid modernization of Japan.
Decisive reforms of Emperor Mutsuhito.
Traits of national character - resilience, readiness for change, hard work.
Use of Western experience, equipment and technologies.
National traditions, corporatism.
The leading role of the state in the industrialization of the country.
Using world achievements of science and technology.
The introduction of a single monetary unit - the yen, the creation of a banking system.
The emergence of monopolistic associations - zaibatsu concerns.
Creation of exemplary enterprises (textiles, matches, glass, cement, beer, etc.)
Independence from European countries.
Renegotiating unequal trade agreements.
Due to reforms and rapid economic growth, Japan has become a leading state in Asia.
Teacher's words:
Reforms carried out in the economic, political, social and spiritual spheres of life were organically accepted by society. They turned out to be in tune with the Japanese way of life, ideas, culture, i.e. Japanese mentality. However, while borrowing Western achievements and introducing them into life, the Japanese did not abandon their original traditions. European clothing did not replace the national kimono (Slide 13), the introduction of the European calendar and education system - the tea ceremony (Slide 14), admiring the cherry blossoms (Slide 15).
CONCLUSION: Japan assimilated all the latest achievements of Europe, and applied them not exactly in this form, no, - she applied them to the extent necessary to strengthen her forces.
Japan used Europe as a ladder to climb to the roof of the Far East.
TEST.
Reasons for the artificial isolation of Japan.
a) the spread of Christianity;
b) an increase in the number of Europeans in Japan;
c) strengthening the position of the bourgeoisie.
Why did Japan become one of the leading countries in the world?
a) decisive reforms, the use of Western experience;
b) Shogun Tokugawo Kake renounced power.
Which country was the first to sign a trade agreement with Japan?
a) USA;
b) Russia;
c) France.
Homework.
Paragraph 25 (study), learn the terms, fill out the table
Direction of reforms
Contents of the reform
The significance of the reform
Government
Public relations
Economic reforms
Education reforms
Student presentations and discussion of the question: “How successful was modernization in Japan and why?”
) Presentation of work by students.
After Map – slide number 53,
Assignment for the map:
1. Show on the map the main directions of Japanese foreign policy. 2. What territories were annexed to Japan. ( slide number 54 )
Comprehension and systematization of acquired knowledge.
Let's answer the key questions of the lesson (distribute the “Student Page”: topic, purpose, lesson plan, summary new material, output, d/z) 1. What does the expression “Eastern morality – Western technology” (Westernization) mean? 2.Explain the main idea of the Japanese slogan “Asia for Asians.”
3. Give your own assessment of the changes that occurred in Japan in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
TEST-Control
After the test, students exchange work for quick review and evaluation.
Until the middleXIX For centuries, Japan has been a “closed” country. This meant: a) the Japanese kept the doors closed; b) the leading countries of the world introduced a naval blockade; c) the Japanese people had no contact with foreigners.
At firstXVII century and until 1968 the following was introduced in the country: a) samurai mode; b) shogun regime; c) kabuki mode; d) Yamoto mode.
Which Japanese emperor was overthrown by the Meiji Revolution? a) Mutsuhito; b) Hirohito, c) Furukawa; d) Tokugawa.
What is the second name for Japan? a) Land of the Rising Moon; b) the land of the morning sun; c) the land of the rising sun; d) the country of the rising star.
What is the name of the Japanese currency? a) yen; b) crown; c) shekel; d) tanga.
What was the goal of the Meiji reforms? a) were aimed at overcoming feudal backwardness; b) to overcome the resistance of the samurai; c) to solve the food problem.
7. Indicate the dates of the Russian-Japanese War:
1) 1903-1905;
2) 1904-1905;
3) 1905-1906;
4) 1906-1907
8. What territories were captured by Japan in the end?XIX -beginning of the twentieth century:
A) Korea, b) China, c) India, d) Liaodong Peninsula, e) Sakhalin Island, f) o. Honshu, i) Taiwan, g) Manchuria, h) Mongolia.
9. According to the Constitution of 1889, Japan became:
A) absolute monarchy;
B) limited monarchy;
B) bourgeois monarchy;
10. Match:
A) The policy of building up military power - the arms race , 1. Modernization which is carried out by the ruling circles of a particular state.
B) Japan's borrowing from Western Europeans 2. Westernization states of the latest achievements of science and technology, the foundations of the political system and their implementation taking into account the local mentality.
C) Updating, improvement, processing in accordance 3. Corporate spirit with modern requirements, using advanced experience and achievements.
D) The employment was for life and created a special atmosphere 4. Militarism trust, responsibility for one’s work and solidarity with one’s owner, interest in the prosperity of the enterprise.
E) A peculiar form of government of the feudal aristocracy in Japan of the 12th-19th centuries, in which the emperor was the supreme figure only nominally, and all power actually belonged and was inherited by the head of a large feudal clan.
Teacher's conclusion: Japan assimilated all the latest achievements of Europe and applied them not exactly in this form, no, but she applied them to the extent necessary to strengthen her forces. Japan used Europe as a ladder to climb to the roof of the Far East
I found out…. and I rate my knowledge at…. points
I understand…
I am surprised…
It's hard for me to understand...
the collision with the West threatened Japan with the loss of independence and in these conditions the young state, using the traditional Japanese tendency to useful borrowings and lack of contempt for foreign culture, prepared Japanese society to understand the need for modernization and contributed to reforms that were destroying traditional society; reforms allowed Japan to follow the path of modernization and development of a capitalist economy; the development of monopoly capitalism in the country took place in conditions of a narrow domestic market, poverty of the vast majority of the population, and growing nationalist sentiments - this made Japan an aggressive country seeking to seize foreign lands
“Japan is the only non-European country whose level of development by the beginning of the 20th century. reached the level of leading European powers. What is the solution to this exceptional phenomenon? Firstly, even during the period of “closure” of the country, the authorities did not reject everything foreign. On the contrary, having become accustomed to adopting everything useful for its own development, the state continued to follow this tradition. The tendency to useful borrowing from outside, nurtured over centuries, led to the fact that contacts with the Dutch continued in Japan even after the “first closure” (in the 17th century). From them the achievements of Western science and technology came to the country.
Secondly, Japan's island position gave a special role to trade and navigation. And although the merchants belonged to the lowest class, their services were needed by powerful princes who provided benefits to their cities and trading people. Trade and navigation were private enterprises (the state was not involved in this). It was through traders that connections with the outside world were made. The princes supported this. Thus, Japanese merchants and the princes who patronized them contributed to the development of private enterprise.
Thirdly, in Japan, power was in the hands of the military (shogunate system). The functions of officials in the country were performed by samurai, faithful to the knightly code of honor (bushido). Japan has not developed a state with comprehensive control over the population. As a result, after the Meiji Revolution, the young state was not burdened with the unbearable burden of traditions and bureaucracy with its inherent inertia and corruption. This opened the way for useful borrowings, including European model constitutional monarchy.
Fourthly, Japan, due to its scarce natural resources, was less attractive to colonialists than China or India. The positions of European states in the Japanese economy were less strong than in these countries. Therefore, transformations in the country and the breaking of the traditional structure were carried out not by the colonialists, but by a young state that took European countries as a model. It should not be forgotten that the young state did not rely on old traditions, since in the past it was ruled by shoguns. The emperor who returned to power (it is no coincidence that these events are also called the “Meiji restoration”) was focused on breaking with the old statehood and borrowing from the West. The main functions of the Japanese state became political functions, that is, the implementation of the policies in which the ruling classes and social strata of the new Japan were interested.
Fifth, Japan's aggressive foreign policy required active modernization of the economy and society. Subsequently, Japan demonstrated not only its economic successes, but also an old, almost medieval in cruelty military tradition, the norms of which provided for the merciless destruction of not only defeated warriors, but also the civilian population in the conquered countries.”
The final part of the lesson may be difficult for some students, so we recommend that the teacher’s summary be accompanied by a note on the chalkboard or in history notebooks. In the next lesson, students will compare Japan and China in the late 19th century.
TEST. 1. Reasons for the artificial isolation of Japan. a) the spread of Christianity; b) an increase in the number of Europeans in Japan; c) strengthening the position of the bourgeoisie.
2. Why did Japan become one of the leading countries in the world? a) decisive reforms, b) use of Western experience; c) shogun Tokugawo Kake renounced power.
3. Which country was the first to sign a trade agreement with Japan? a) USA; b) Russia;
c) France.
Reflection.
The name of the state is displayed on the flag of Japan: the red disk in the center of the flag means the morning sun. In terms of natural beauty, Japan ranks one of the first places in the world (slides of nature and architecture, Mount Fuji, the imperial palace, etc.). Here the heat gives way to frost, and the hot sun gives way to falling snow. Japan is a country of wonders and unique culture. Everyone knows the Japanese samurai - warrior knights, the art of ikebana, cherry blossoms, tea ceremonies, the unusual and exciting kabuki theater, funny macaques who love to bask in hot springs. Japan is the birthplace of karate, ninjas, and sumo wrestling.
However, from the beginning of the 17th century. For almost 250 years, Japan became a closed country and avoided all kinds of contacts with Europe under penalty of death.
Key questions of the lesson (slide No. 36 +Handout)
What does the expression “Eastern morality – Western technology” (Westernization) mean?
Explain the main idea of the Japanese slogan “Asia for Asians.”
Give your own assessment of the changes that occurred in Japan in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries;
(the questions are on the desks so that students can read them at any time)
Using the table, determine where most of the world's population lived at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. What kind of society - traditional or industrial - dominates in the countries of the East?
Territory
Population, million
Asia
950
Europe
290
Russia
130
Africa
110
81
Latin America
64
Australia and Oceania
Students conclude that the majority of the Earth's population at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries lived in Asia (approximately 950 million people). In these countries, the features of a traditional society prevailed.
- What are the main features of a traditional society? (following traditions, honoring elders, etc.)
BBK 63.3(5YaPO)5
Reviewers:
Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor;
Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor.
Japan on the path of modernization: a textbook /. -2nd ed., revised. and additional – Khabarovsk: Dalnevostochny Publishing House. state humanitarian university, 20s.
The textbook shows the process of Japan's transition from a late feudal society to a capitalist one. The work explains the reasons and features of the transition to capitalism in relation to Japan.
Cover design
Computer layout
Signed for publication on March 21, 2006. Format 60x84 1/16
Writing paper. Times set. RISO stamp.
Conditional oven l. 2.79. Circulation 100 copies. Order 49.
Publishing house of the Far Eastern State University for the Humanities. st. K. Marx, 68.
Department of operational printing of the publishing house of the Far Eastern State University for the Humanities, .
ÓFar Eastern State
Humanities University, 2006
Introduction. 5
Chapter I. “Meiji Restoration.” 8
1. The formation of the preconditions for the fall of the shogunate system. 8
2. The social structure of Japan during the emergence of the anti-shogun opposition. 13
3. "Discovery of Japan". 19
4. Restoration of the emperor's power (Meiji Restoration). 24
Civil War. 32
The place of samurai in the Meiji restoration. 34
The role of peasant movements at the beginning of the Meiji period. 37
Chapter II. "Modernization of Japan". Transformations of the Meiji era. 40
1. Primary Meiji transformations. 40
1. The first steps of reforming the state administrative system. 42
2. Formation of local government institutions. 45
3. Reform of the class system. 46
4. Military reform. Creation of a regular army. 46
5. Creation of a police apparatus. 46
6. Judicial and legal reform. 47
2. Reforms of the 1880s. 51
1. Agrarian reforms. 51
2. Capitalization of samurai pensions. 54
3. The initial period of industrialization of Japan. 56
4. Education reform. 62
5. Formation of political parties. 63
But if the large feudal lords "daimyo" and samurai sought to limit the power of the shogun and rationalize social relations in the country, the peasantry suffered, first of all, from the heavy burden of feudal taxes. The existing tax system “shi-ko, roku-min” (four shares to the prince, and six shares to the peasant) in practice reached the point that the peasant often received as income only three shares, or even less, of the harvest he collected. All this led to the spontaneous emergence of an anti-shogun movement in the country, the slogan of which was the demand for the transfer of full power to the imperial house.
At the same time, the factor of “external pressure” on Japan also began to take its toll. The advent of steam ships in the world made it easy to sail to the most remote areas of the world's oceans. But, unlike sailing ships, steam ships required intermediate supply bases with fresh water and coal. Therefore, more and more often, foreign ships, in violation of the ban of the Japanese government, began to enter Japanese waters. Thus, in 1808, on the way to China, the English warship Phaeton, despite the existing ban, arbitrarily entered the port of Nagasaki. In an effort to defend his honor, the port master committed seppuku (another reading of harakiri). And there were many similar cases. In 1824, another English ship, the Gordon, not only entered Uraga Bay (today's Tokyo Bay), near the residence of the shogun of Edo (now Tokyo), but the crew even went ashore briefly.
The bakufu government was in a state of shock. Realizing that such incidents would continue in the future, it was unable to take any effective measures against it. In 1844, King William II of the Netherlands - the only country with which Japan had official relations - addressed the shogun with a message in which he drew attention to the fact that Japan's policy of isolationism was unwise and unlikely to be feasible in the current international situation.
However, not daring to take any constructive steps, the bakufu government, among others, left this message unanswered.
Thus, both internal (the systemic crisis of the shogunate) and external (the desire of Western countries to open Japan, caused, first of all, by the need of the world fleet for intermediate supply bases) preconditions were developing in the country, which ultimately led feudal system the shogunate to collapse.
2. The social structure of Japan during the emergence of the anti-shogun opposition.
In Tokugawa Japan, at the head of the feudal pyramid was the Tokugawa house and several close, related houses. The possessions of the Tokugawa house occupied almost a quarter of the country's territory, including such major centers as Edo (present-day Tokyo), Sakai (Osaka), and Kyoto, where the imperial court was located. The remaining three-quarters of Japan's territory was divided between feudal princes "daimyo" . At the same time, all daimyo were divided into two groups. The first group included the fudai daimyo, the feudal houses that from the very beginning supported the Tokugawa house in its struggle for power. They enjoyed the special patronage of the Tokugawa clan; appointments to the highest positions in the state were made only from among them. The second group was represented by the "tozama daimyo", that is, those feudal houses that joined the Tokugawa later. These princes were practically excluded from participation in state affairs, but they had a certain autonomy in the affairs of their principalities.
The bakufu government was very skillful in using a system of check and balance in relation to the feudal houses. All daimyo must reside for some time in the capital of Edo. Moreover, when they left the capital and went to their possessions, they were obliged to leave their children or wives in the capital as hostages. In addition, the government did not approve of direct connections between feudal houses.
Espionage was carried out on a large scale in the country. Movement around the country was extremely difficult due to a strict system of passes and outposts. Without government permission, it was impossible not only to build castles and surround them with moats, but even to enter into marriage alliances between daimyo families. In addition, the daimyo princes were not allowed to establish any contacts directly with the imperial palace in Kyoto.
Of those feudal houses that were in potential opposition to the government of the shogun "bakufu", the most prominent were the "tozama daimyo" of the western domains: the Shimazu house from the Satsuma domain, the Mori house from the Choshu domain and the Nabeshima house from the Hizen domain. Being located far from the center, these principalities, especially the Satsuma principality, had the greatest income in Japan, thanks, first of all, to their advantageous location, since it was through their lands that few contacts with overseas countries were carried out. Despite the ban, they conducted active independent trade with China through the Ryukyu Islands, and became very rich from this.
An unfriendly attitude towards the shogunal government of the Bakufu, supported by large accumulations of commercial capital, made these principalities the initiators of the fight against the Tokugawa political regime.
At the same time, a significant force in the future anti-feudal opposition became, oddly enough, court aristocracy "kuge" ". Having been at the height of glory and power in the pre-Tokugawa period, these representatives of the highest aristocracy during the reign of the Tokugawa house lost their former position, and even became poorer. But they retained the memory of those times when skill in poetry or calligraphy was valued much higher than military prowess. Free from supervision and having great influence due to their proximity to the emperor, it was the kuge that formed the core around which opposition to the feudal regime of the Tokugawa was formed.Together with the opposition feudal houses (daimyo) of Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa and Hizen, they formed an anti-government alliance, which in fact became the first conscious political a step against the shogun government. And although later, with the intensification of the struggle, this contradictory alliance disintegrated, it played a role in preparing the overthrow of the bakufu government.
Lower down the social ladder were samurai. The main source of their income was the rice pension (sometimes the term “rice stipend” is used in the literature), which they received for their service to the feudal prince. During early feudalism, most samurai were engaged in agriculture in peacetime, and took up arms when the prince undertook military campaigns. In the era of the transition to firearms, when the need arose for strong defense of castle cities, samurai began to gather in these castles, engaged exclusively in military affairs, and peasants cultivated the land instead of them.
Often, impoverished feudal daimyo princes were forced to cut the rice pensions of their samurai, and this led to the fact that the most dissatisfied of them broke their ties with the feudal lords and became “ronin” (literally “vagabond”). Many “ronins” settled in cities, where they studied foreign languages, studied science, and art; some left in search of the ideal of social order in other countries, while others were engaged in robbery. Therefore, the samurai had every reason to dislike the social system that destroyed their well-being and ambitious plans. Hence, it was the samurai of the lower ranks that formed the main backbone of the leaders of the restoration, most of whom subsequently became active fighters for the restoration of the emperor’s power.
The next most important social group were merchants." chounin ". The social position of traders in Japan was very interesting. If the shogunate saw the samurai as its military support, and it considered the peasantry as the source of its income, then the Bakufu rulers placed the traders at the very bottom of the social ladder, seeing in them only an unproductive social group that, for the sake of She did not disdain money by any means.
Perhaps in no other country in the world was the attitude of feudal lords towards the pursuit of money, towards the pursuit of profit, as openly negative as it was in Japan of the Tokugawa era. Merchants were forbidden to even bear a name that even remotely resembled the name of the daimyo; their activities were subject to various restrictions, including regulation of the style of clothing and footwear; they were forbidden to settle in the quarters where samurai lived. However, despite this attitude on the part of the government, as money circulation increased, the merchants increasingly expanded their activities and became a social force that was already difficult to ignore.
Japanese society, consisting of daimyo princes, samurai warriors and merchants, rested on the shoulders peasants - the main productive force of the country. Japanese rulers strongly encouraged the expansion of agricultural production through the issuance of relevant government orders, improvement of agricultural technology, various forms of administrative regulation, etc. In Japan, peasants, as a rule, were not land owners. The land belonged to the feudal lord, and the peasants, not having the right to alienate (sell or mortgage), owned the land on the basis of hereditary lease, giving the prince a significant share of the harvest. As money circulation expanded, part of the princely share began to be paid in cash. To pay off debts, the peasant was often forced to take money from moneylenders, pledging the land as collateral. Subsequently, being unable to repay the borrowed money on time, the peasant was forced to renounce his land user rights, which thus passed to the usurer. The moneylender, in turn, taking responsibility for paying taxes, increased fees from the peasants, so that after paying taxes, he would have a certain profit in his hands. Thus, in the simple relationship between the feudal prince and the peasant, a third party appeared - moneylender, whose power was constantly increasing. By the period of the Meiji restoration, moneylenders had reached such power that they were able to exert a significant influence on the course of land reform.
In addition to the main peasant taxes, which, as already mentioned, reached 50-70% of the harvest, there were a lot of other indirect taxes, such as a tax on fields, on doors, on windows, a tax on female children, a tax on fabrics, on sake (rice wine), on nut trees, etc. So, if a peasant made an additional extension to his house, it was also taxed... There were also many other forms of taxation of peasants. Ultimately, the actual tax was three times higher than the nominal tax (the nominal tax was one koku of rice and tang of katori silk per yard).
Taxes were usually levied several years in advance. To these fees was often added the obligation to participate in public works (repairing the feudal lord’s buildings, bridges, land reclamation structures, etc.), as well as “sukego” - the obligation to supply horses and people for postal and courier services.
All these duties led to the fact that the situation of the peasants, which was quite difficult in good times, became extremely difficult in lean years.
Therefore, one can understand the situation when a peasant, conservative in his views, was forced to turn to various forms of resistance, such as the flight of peasants to the cities, the practice of killing their children, which took on such a wide scale that all administrative measures turned out to be powerless. And, as the most extreme form, rebellion. Peasant revolts During the Tokugawa era, they sporadically arose here and there and sometimes covered several districts at the same time. These uprisings did not stop until the end of the existence of the Tokugawa shogunate and, one might say, played a very significant role in undermining the foundations of the feudal regime.
The ruin of the peasants, who formed the main financial base of the feudal lords, in an environment of rapid expansion of monetary circulation, had dire consequences for the entire system of the Tokugawa shogunate. The most disastrous thing was that the ruin of the peasants also deprived the samurai financial base existence.
Thus, an anti-shogun coalition took shape, which included representatives of almost all sectors of society, including the court nobility “kuge” and the highest samurai. Of course, each participant in this coalition pursued their own goals: the court nobility "kuge" - raising the prestige of the imperial power, and therefore their own, the large feudal lords "tozama daimyo" - equalization of rights with the "fudai daimyo", merchants sought to obtain political rights, which would correspond to their real political influence. But all participants in the anti-shogun movement advocated the traditional policy of "joi" (expulsion of barbarians).
3. "Discovery of Japan".
At the beginning of the 19th century, the strongest maritime power of that time - England - fought with all the might of its weapons to remove trade barriers in the countries of East Asia. The capture of Singapore in 1819 and the rapid development of trade with China, especially the opium trade, naturally focused further British interest on the vast Chinese market. In order to “open” China and destroy all obstacles standing in the way of the development of its foreign trade, England started a war with the Qing government of China (the so-called “First Opium War”) and, having won, concluded the first unequal Treaty of Nanking with it (1842). G.). In this situation, British politicians and businessmen were of little interest in the distant and “obscure” Japanese islands.
The favorable geographical conditions of Japan for the time being contributed to the isolationist policy of the shogunate. At the same time, it was absolutely clear to the Japanese rulers that, sooner or later, the processes taking place in Asia would affect their country. Therefore, fearing the fate of China, the feudal bakufu government began to soften its position towards foreigners, and in 1842 issued instructions according to which foreign ships were allowed to enter certain ports of Japan, but only to replenish supplies of coal and food. This step by the government caused violent discontent among the patriots (an anti-foreign party), which, in turn, was used by opposition anti-government forces, who began to use the slogan “down with the barbarians” to attack the government.
The North American United States, a growing powerful competitor to England for supremacy at sea, by this time also began to show increased attention to the Far East, trying to ensure the interests of its shipping and trading companies here.
American Commodore Matthew Perry wrote: “When we look at the eastern possessions of our strong maritime rival - England, at the continuous and rapid increase in the number of her fortified ports, we are convinced of the need to take urgent measures... Fortunately, the Japanese and many other islands in the Pacific ocean have not yet been touched by this unscrupulous government (England), some of them are located on the great trade route, which inevitably acquires exceptional significance for the United States...".
All these intentions were implemented with varying degrees of success. Commodore Perry himself undertook an exploration of several islands from the Ryukyu group in southern Japan, which, in his opinion, occupied an extremely important position, and then held preliminary negotiations with the local ruler. In addition, Perry tried to declare the Bonin Islands American, for which he raised a flag on the main island of Peel. On his return he compiled detailed plan colonization of all these islands. Moreover, he proposed to the American government to seize the island of Taiwan. And later, in 1857, an American military expedition under the command of Armstrong planted an American flag on this island, and the Americans were ready to proclaim an “independent state” here. However, opposition from other powers, especially Great Britain, as well as the outbreak of the civil war in America, prevented the implementation of these plans.
In 1853, having the decision of the American government in hand, a squadron of 12 ships, under the command of the same Commodore M. Perry, entered Uraga Bay (Tokyo). The squadron included two steamships, which, to the horror of the Japanese, belched huge columns of smoke from their chimneys. The Americans rejected the demand of the Japanese representatives to leave for the port of Nagasaki, open to foreign ships, and gave them a personal message from American President M. Fillmore, promising to come for an answer next year, but with a more powerful squadron. To confirm his intentions, Perry sent ships directly to the shogun's capital. The Japanese waited in horror for the shelling. Satisfied with the show of force, the Commodore turned the ships around and went to sea.
The bakufu government took an unprecedented step: it turned to the emperor and the largest feudal lords for advice. As a result, they decided to accept the American demands, since it was recognized that Japan was completely unprepared for armed resistance.
At the end of February 1854, in Kanagawa (not far from Edo (Tokyo), the Americans forced the Japanese rulers to sign a Japanese-American treaty of peace and friendship. Its main content was as follows: the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate were opened for American ships, the procedure for dealing with shipwrecked, the Americans received the right to trade with Japan, any foreign money was allowed to circulate with Japan, etc. This Treaty of Kanagawa became the prototype for concluding similar treaties with other countries.In October 1854, a Japanese-English treaty was signed, in January 1855 Russo-Japanese Treaty ("Shimoda Treaty"), followed by treaties with Holland in January 1856, with France in October 1858, as well as with other countries. Four years later, the US Consul General in Japan Townsend Harris ensured that Japan concluded the first trade agreement with a Western power - the United States, which was inevitably followed by the establishment of permanent diplomatic ties with other Western countries.
A completely natural question arises: how Japan managed to avoid the fate of its neighbors and not become a colony, such as India, or to a country with limited sovereignty, such as China? Although such a danger was quite real for Japan.
Briefly, the following reasons can be identified. In the 19th century, the attention of the leading colonial powers - England and France - was absorbed by a richer and more attractive country - China. The capture of Singapore by the British in 1819, and the growth of trade with China (primarily opium) produced fabulous profits, which became the basis for the outbreak of the Opium Wars.
Compared to the huge and profitable Chinese market, Japan was of little interest either as a market for finished goods or as a source of raw materials for Western industry. In addition, Western envoys encountered enormous difficulties in every attempt to penetrate Japan. In the most difficult period for Japan, from 1860 to 1865, when the bakufu government was in a state of deep crisis, and the entire system of feudal relations was literally falling apart under the influence of the opened opportunity to trade with the West, England was busy “pacifying” the Taiping uprising, which lasted for several decades, and France, facing a formidable rival, Chancellor Bismarck, was preoccupied with its European problems. The United States was just entering the Pacific colonial space, representing a serious competitor to Great Britain.
Curious in this regard is the letter from Commodore Parry, who shortly before the expedition to Japan justified its necessity as follows.
“When we look at the eastern possessions of our strong maritime rival, England, at the continuous and rapid increase in the number of her fortified ports, we are convinced of the need to take urgent measures... Fortunately, the Japanese and many other islands in the Pacific Ocean have not yet been touched by this unscrupulous government ( "that is, England), some of them are located on the great trade route, which will inevitably acquire exceptional importance for the United States. Without losing a single minute, the most decisive measures should be taken to secure a sufficient number of ports for the United States."
It can be said without exaggeration that just as the “wind of the gods” (kamikaze) in the 13th century prevented the conquest of Japan by the Mongols, just as in the 19th century defeated China became the main obstacle to the expansion of Western powers.
4. Restoration of the emperor's power (Meiji Restoration).
Faced with a real external threat, the bakufu government, after the opening of the country, experienced a state of paralysis of power. After all, before this, the structure of government bodies did not even have a special unit that would deal with issues related to foreign affairs. A long period of peaceful existence in the absence of any wars led to some degradation of the art of war. Japan did not have its own regular army or navy, and the country did not have established the production of modern weapons. Of course, the government tried to somehow respond to events, hastily creating various types of organizations that were supposed to deal with foreign affairs, but the lack of experience and specialists made these attempts ineffective. In addition, with the opening of the country, Japan began to actively become involved in world trade and economic relations. And since trade agreements established low import duties, a wide flow of Western goods poured into the country, which, in turn, stimulated the development of commodity-money relations in the country and intensified the crisis of an unproductive feudal-type economy. The import of cheap cotton and woolen fabrics undermined peasant family production. At the same time, Japanese products that were in demand on the world market, such as Japanese tea, copper, beans, porcelain products, high-quality raw silk, and more, were exported from the country in large quantities.
|
Years |
Japanese exports (yen) |
Japanese imports (yen) |
But the most big profit Western merchants profited from gold speculation. Since the silver monetary standard was traditionally widespread in the East, the ratio of the price of gold to silver was 1:5, while in Europe this ratio was 1:15. Taking advantage of such a favorable situation, foreigners began to import large quantities of silver into Japan and buy gold with it. This practice led to gold flowing out of the country, disorganizing prices and frustrating the Japanese economy. 
Rice. 3. This is how this situation is clearly explained in Japanese textbooks.
In 1860, the bakufu government began to reduce the value of the coin by reducing its gold content by more than 85%. The subsequent inflation further intensified the economic crisis and led to a rapid rise in prices.
Now let's look at the dynamics of price changes for the leading product on the Japanese market - rice, which, ultimately, determined the prices for other goods and services. As can be seen from the tables presented, the price increase in these years was very serious. And the consequences of this rapid rise in prices for goods, along with the rise in prices for rice, for the shogunate, the large feudal daimyos and the samurai who were in their pay became simply catastrophic. The point is that the sizes
Dynamics of price changes in Fig.
|
Years |
Years | ||
The rice pensions received by the samurai, although firmly established, were actually reduced several times when converted into money, due to rising prices for goods.
The government had no other sources to cover expenses other than increased taxes and forced borrowing. In turn, the increase in taxes, as well as the growing army of wandering samurai "ronin", led to the growth of peasant uprisings, which were often led by samurai, and to increasing chaos in the country. The samurai considered “foreign barbarians” to be the culprits of their plight, attempts on whose lives became a frequent occurrence. Often these attempts led to dire consequences.
So, in 1862, in the city of Namamugi, the Englishman Richardson was killed by samurai from the Satsuma clan. Placing full responsibility for this murder on the Japanese side, England demanded that Japan arrest and punish the perpetrators, as well as pay compensation in the amount of 1 million pounds sterling. Despite the fact that the required compensation was paid, the British government sent a squadron of 7 warships with the task of bombing the main city of this feudal principality, Kagoshima. In August 1863, the ships arrived in Kagoshima Bay, and the commander of the squadron demanded that the authorities of the principality immediately find and punish those responsible for the incident. Although the Japanese expressed their willingness to resolve the incident, the commander, Vice Admiral Cooper, ordered fire on the city. As the British themselves admitted, as a result of this action, 1,500 people were killed, wounded and suffered from burns.
In June 1863, at the insistence of Emperor Komei, the shogunal government decided to begin military action against foreigners, expel the “barbarians,” and re-close the ports. On June 25, 1863, troops from the Choshu domain fired at foreign ships stationed in the port of Shimonoseki. Accordingly, the ships of the Western powers also responded with fire. American ships shelled the port of Shimonoseki and sank 2 Japanese ships. In September 1864, a punitive expedition was carried out against the Principality of Choshu, where 17 ships from England, France, Holland and the USA took part.
The incidents at Kagoshima and Choshu, which provided an object lesson in the superiority of European weapons, had curious consequences. They convinced the most warlike and arrogant samurai in Japan from these two principalities that it was better not to conflict with a militarily superior force, but to have friendly relations, learn from them, and, above all, military affairs. Soon, both Satsuma and Choshu made peace with the Western powers and began to purchase large quantities of British weapons to prepare for an attack against the shogunal bakufu government.
Pursuing their goals, Western states competed with each other and supported various sides of the internal political conflict brewing in Japan. So, for example, if France supported the shogunal government, hoping to receive concessions for this support, then England, the “external” (i.e., Western) principalities.
Thus, the complexity of the international situation in the 1850s, as well as the peculiar impasse that arose as a result of intrigues in Japan between England and France, in which neither side was able to achieve an advantage, ultimately gave Japan the much-needed opportunity overthrow the feudal regime that led the country to economic and political collapse and threatened it with the economic and political dominance of the Western powers.
The leaders of the anti-shogun movement were able to use the current situation to their advantage. By overthrowing the shogun's bakufu government and creating a new centralized national government in its place, they opened Japan to the fresh trends of Western science and invention.
The Meiji Restoration (“Meiji isin” - Japanese) was carried out by a coalition of young kuge nobles and samurai who led the anti-government struggle, putting forward the slogan “tobaku” (overthrow the shogun). The broad opposition movement that developed combined with peasant uprisings and turned into a powerful force that the bakufu government could no longer ignore. Each of the participants in this movement had their own reasons for seeking the overthrow of the shogun's government. Kuge aimed to increase the prestige of imperial power, tozama daimyo sought equal rights with fudai daimyo, merchant entrepreneurs sought to obtain political rights corresponding to their real political influence. At the same time, they were all united by the traditional slogan - “expulsion of the barbarians.” At its core, this slogan was directed against the government of the shogun, which also supported it, but, fearing reprisals from foreign powers, was forced to maneuver. This, in turn, led to criticism from the opposition, accusing the government of impotence, and to new protests, led, as a rule, by samurai from the southern principalities of Satsuma and Choshu. The reason for the events that led to the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate was the defeat of government troops during another attempt to “pacify” the rebellious principality of Choshu, as well as the death of the Tokugawa shogun Iemochi in July 1866.
It is curious that the Choshu principality owed its victory to the young talented samurai Takasugi Shinkaku (). For the first time in Japan at that time, he created “kiheitai” detachments (lit. - detachments of unusual warriors), consisting of volunteers trained in the art of war, which, along with former samurai “ronin”, also included representatives of wealthy peasants and townspeople. The victory of such combined units trained in the European manner over government troops consisting of hereditary samurai showed that in addition to the samurai, there was another combat-ready force in the country, which fundamentally undermined the previously existing views on samurai and the army. The "kiheitai" units created by Takasugi Shinkaku became the prototype of the future regular army.
The new (and last) 15th shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu () was a representative of a side branch of the Tokugawa clan from the Mito domain. He, first of all, stopped hostilities and made an attempt to carry out government reform, as well as army reform along the French model, arming it with modern weapons. In October 1866, after the death of Emperor Komei (), who still supported the joint rule of the emperor and the shogun and was an ardent opponent of any contacts with foreigners, Mutsuhito ascended the throne (the motto of the Meiji reign, i.e., enlightened rule), to whom at that time I was only 15 years old. On the occasion of the accession to the throne of the new emperor, an amnesty was declared and all the leaders of the anti-shogun opposition gathered in the capital - Okubo Toshimichi, Saigo Takamori, Yamagata Aritomo and others.
It was assumed that the old regime of the Tokugawa shogun would be overthrown peacefully. The shogun had to voluntarily renounce power in favor of the emperor, thereby he stood on a par with other feudal princes daimyo, i.e., the situation that existed in the 12th century, before the establishment of the shogunate system, was restored. Under the threat of armed anti-shogunal opposition, on November 9, 1867, the last shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, resigned.
He explained his decision as follows. “At present, as our relations with the outside world develop more and more, the state may disintegrate into its component parts if it is not governed by a single central authority. Therefore, it is necessary to change the old order of things, return sovereign power to the emperor, and widely develop activities deliberative institutions, ensure that policy decisions are made by the emperor with the support of the entire people, and then Empire of Japan will be able to maintain its dignity and position among other states of the world."
As a result of agrarian transformations, there was a concentration of land ownership; more than a third of all cultivated land was concentrated in the hands of moneylenders, landowners and wealthy peasants. Small landowners for the most part lost their land plots and were forced to go to the city to earn money.
2. Capitalization of samurai pensions.
Another important step stimulating the development of capitalist relations was the capitalization of samurai pensions. As mentioned above, fulfilling its promises, the Meiji government, in return for the privileges lost by the large feudal lords “daimyo” and samurai, provided them with monetary compensation in the form of lifelong pensions. However, it soon became clear that for the post-reform budget of the country this burden, which amounted to about a third of its total revenue, turned out to be unbearable. Therefore, in 1873, the government invited all recipients of samurai pensions to voluntarily capitalize their pensions. That is, the state offered the samurai instead of lifelong pensions to receive a lump sum monetary compensation , half of which were government bonds. In addition, they were given the right to purchase state lands at preferential prices. The purpose of these government steps was to attract the samurai class to engage in entrepreneurial activities. But the government's call did not arouse much enthusiasm among the samurai. In this regard, in 1876 the government, which was in a difficult financial situation, was forced to take compulsory measures to capitalize samurai pensions. Instead of regular pension payments, a one-time payment of compensation was made in the amount of a pension for 5-14 years, depending on the rank of samurai or daimyo. The funds to pay these compensations were taken by the government from the London loan, amounting to 2.4 million pounds sterling. Such payments continued until 1882. The significant sums received by samurai and former daimyos in the form of compensation were invested in agriculture, industry, but most of all in the banking sector. However, a significant part of the samurai and small feudal lords received amounts that were not sufficient to rise above the level of the middle strata of society. And therefore, dissatisfaction with this step of the government resulted in a series of samurai uprisings, which were already mentioned above. In addition to capitalizing pensions, the government decided to pay off the debts of the daimyo princes to moneylenders and merchants. These debts totaled more than 41 million yen. However, this government decision did not apply to the debts of the shogunate, and was of particular importance for the Osaka bourgeoisie, which was heavily indebted to the bankrupt princes. In order to implement the government decision, a new loan was issued, the bonds of which not only guaranteed the payment of bad debts to the trading bourgeoisie, but also provided bondholders with the necessary funds to invest in industrial enterprises and agriculture. Such measures contributed to the transformation of large landowners and moneylenders into shareholders and bankers. Thus, in the city of Niigata, the large landowner and moneylender Ichishima Tokujiro in 1873 created the still existing “Fourth Bank” (Daishi Ginko), whose shareholders were mainly large landowners who occupied leading positions in local political and administrative spheres. Thus, already during this period we can see the close intertwining of the interests of landowners, banking capital and government officials, which is very characteristic of Japan.
3. The initial period of industrialization of Japan.
To implement industrialization, the following conditions are necessary: 1) a sufficiently high level of development of production and circulation of goods, as well as the process of division of labor; 2) some accumulation of capital in the hands of the most active part of the population (entrepreneurs); 3) the presence of a sufficiently large army of free workers.
Already during the Tokugawa period, although rice remained the measure of value, money largely predominated in circulation, especially in large cities. A fairly high level of handicraft production was directed primarily at the market, that is, more goods were produced than were necessary for the consumer himself. And from here, trade developed. Along with the steady increase in labor productivity in agriculture, as well as the increasingly deepening process of division of labor, the market for goods expanded, the demand for which increased. With the beginning of the Meiji period, specialization by region was carried out, replacing the previous independence of clans. At the same time, the process of division of labor in Japan was delayed due to the presence of a wide sphere of home production of porcelain, lacquer, cotton and other products, concentrated mainly in the hands of peasants and poor samurai families. The influx of cheap foreign goods with the advent of the Meiji era, especially cheaper cotton yarn and machine-made products, undermined Japanese home industries. This accelerated the process of division of labor and the formation of the internal market.
As for the accumulation of initial capital, this process in Japan had a number of features. First of all, the long-term “closedness” of the country did not allow Japan to use such “classical” European sources of capital accumulation as piracy or robbery of colonies and overseas territories. Although, as was already shown above, foreign trade, piracy, and even the beginnings of colonization existed in pre-Tokugawa Japan, the subsequent isolation from the outside world slowed down the development of the country. Therefore, capital in Japan was concentrated mainly in the hands of a small number of large merchants and moneylenders, in particular in the hands of the trading houses of Mitsui, Ono, Konoike and some others. Deprived of the opportunity to make a profit from any external sources, Japanese merchants were forced to limit themselves to the exploitation of a rather modest domestic market, which greatly reduced the rate of capital accumulation.
Therefore, the economic course of the Meiji government was characterized, first of all, by state protectionism , that is, a policy in which the state took upon itself most of the concerns necessary for social development for the development of national industry. In particular, many owners of state-sponsored trading houses were also involved in banking operations and became directors of banks and industrial enterprises. This system of protectionism of the absolutist state served as crutches with the help of which the newly emerging capitalism learned to walk.
But if European capitalism, having reached maturity, discarded absolutism, which had now become a hindrance to it, then in Japan capitalism, which was not mature enough and did not have the necessary savings, could not do without these “crutches” - absolutist power - and relied on them to a greater extent than before. The Meiji leaders set themselves the task of achieving within one generation what Western countries had been achieving for centuries. They understood the gulf that separates the primitive, largely feudal production in Japan from the industrial technology of most European countries. And in order to jump over this chasm, Japanese capitalism needed state support.
The lack of capital made the government's position very difficult. The young Meiji leaders who overthrew the bakufu sought to demonstrate the effectiveness of the new government as quickly as possible. And as “visual proof” of this effectiveness, it was decided to begin construction in the country railway, the first section of which was supposed to connect one of the central metropolitan areas of Shinbashi with the port of Yokogamma.
Two prominent Meiji figures, Ito Hirobumi (real name Ito Shunsuke) and Okuma Shigenobu, took up the task of implementing this “crazy idea.” With the help of invited Western specialists, a road project was developed. Then the government faced the question: where to get the money? The Americans, through 2nd Secretary Hottman, offered a loan for the construction of the road, subject to the transfer of rights to the constructed road to them. However, before the eyes of young reformers there was the sad experience of other Asian countries, in which the construction of railways became a tool for the colonization of these territories. Therefore, to the surprise of representatives of Western countries, the Japanese government refused the American proposal. Ito and Okuma believed that it was necessary to do everything possible, but to build the road without compromising national independence and, if possible, with their own hands.
After some time, the Englishman Nelson (Nelson Rey) arrived to Shigenobu and Okuma, who, knowing the sad experience of the Americans, offered a private loan at 12% per annum. After some hesitation, the authors of the project agreed to a loan from a private person. In their opinion, such a loan could not threaten the independence of the country. Imagine their surprise when they learned from the English press that Nelson had announced in England a collection of funds for the construction of the Tokyo railway at 9% per annum. Thus, this Englishman received 3% profit per year. Japanese politicians felt deceived. But there was nothing to be done, this option was “the best of the worst”, since there were simply no other acceptable options.
Finally, the first section of the road was completed and on September 12, 1872, at 10 a.m., the first train departed from Shinbashi Station to Yokogamma Port.
The presence of a very small number of very rich houses predetermined the second feature of the modernization process in Japan - predominance from the very beginning of monopoly, that is, highly centralized capital . These few, closely associated with the government, financial magnates were unwilling to take risks and invest in industries that were costly and did not bring immediate profits to begin with. Therefore, the government was forced to develop such industries itself, using loans from the same financial magnates and very limited own resources, the main share of which was land tax.
Large capitalists preferred to invest money in trading, banking and credit enterprises, especially in the very profitable area of government loans. This determined the third feature of Japanese capitalism - predominance of bank capital , which in its growth has significantly outpaced industrial capital. Moreover, this process of capital concentration was accelerated by government policies of subsidies and incentives. In general, the reasons for the very rapid rate of capital concentration in Japan can be summarized as follows. 1) low level of initial capital accumulation; 2) the need for large masses of capital to create large enterprises that could be compared with modern enterprises West; 3) the introduction in Japan from the very beginning of industrialization of the system of joint stock companies; 4) competition with Western companies, which also encouraged the concentration of capital.
The process of concentration of capital occurred through the absorption of small enterprises by large ones, due to which the so-called “zaibatsu” (financial oligarchies) of Mitsui, Sumitomo, Yasuda, etc. were born. Banking and loan capital, based on strong government support, in turn, was used by the government for the development of those sectors of the economy that required large capital investments, such as infrastructure, capital construction, transport, communications.
It is interesting to pay attention in that situation to the situation of small entrepreneurs. Suffering from a lack of funds and high interest rates on loan capital, they were often forced to apply for a loan from a bank. At the end of the 19th century, the interest rate on loan capital in Japanese banks reached 10-15%, while no more than 7-8% was paid on deposits. In such difficult conditions, small companies, often unable to pay off their debts, were forced to mortgage their enterprises to banks.
Thus, If in most Western countries during the formation of capitalism, banking capital existed separately from industrial capital, then Japanese capitalism is also characterized by the fact that in this country industrial capital did not develop independently. As has already been shown, in Japan the process of industrialization was initiated by the state. And only after raising the industry to its feet, it transferred the enterprises to large private entrepreneurs at a very low price. This policy is called the “policy of state protectionism.”
It can be said that Japanese industrial capital grew out of banking and usury capital. The latter, using high land rents, attracted investments mainly in agriculture, since, as already noted, the investment in industrial enterprises was associated with great risk and did not provide quick and high profits.
Results of economic reforms of the transition period. As a result of agrarian reforms, the capitalization of samurai pensions and the state's repayment of samurai debts to moneylenders and merchant capital, a powerful impetus was given to the concentration of capital, which became an important prerequisite for the rapid development of capitalism in Japan.
At the same time, agriculture has not undergone much change. The main agricultural crop remained rice, which was grown by peasants in small terraced fields on the mountain slopes. Land leases, which were usually paid in rice, increased significantly. Among traditional household crafts, sericulture was most developed, the products of which were exported. Accordingly, foreign trade developed rapidly in the early Meiji years. Its peculiarity during this period was that, due to the lack of domestic experience, foreign trade was carried out for a long time by Japanese companies through foreign trading agents.
4. Education reform.
Traditionally, education in Japan was quite widespread even before the Meiji era. The literacy level of the Japanese population was quite high. Contemporary documents indicate the spread of literacy even among Japanese peasants. The content of education was limited to the study of classical Confucian books and the basics of mathematics. Much attention in Japanese education has always been paid to moral education.
However, such a traditional patriarchal education no longer met the requirements of the era of modernization. Therefore, the leaders of the reforms, the most prominent Japanese educators Ito Hirobumi, Fukuzawa Yukichi and others, set the task of creating a perfect education system based on the Western model. For this purpose, large numbers of students were sent to Europe and America for training. Thus, in 1873, 373 Japanese students studied in London alone. In addition, among the foreign specialists who were invited in large numbers to Japan to help organize and establish work both in the field of public administration and local authorities, and in enterprises, in the army and other areas, there were many specialists who helped organize the Japanese education system.
As a result of the activities of a special commission to prepare education reform, it was decided to take the French and American systems as a model. In 1872, a rather liberal for its time was adopted Education Act, according to which all classes, men and women, had an equal right to receive an education, and no discrimination was allowed. Initially, it was assumed that the costs of training would be borne by the population itself. However, due to the low solvency of the majority of the Japanese population, in 1880 it was decided to assign the bulk of the costs of financing education to local authorities authorities. In 1886, a law was passed on compulsory 4-year primary education, which since 1900 has become free for the population. It must be said that Japan's successes in the field of education have been very significant. By the end of the 19th century, about 85% of Japanese children received compulsory primary education. According to this indicator, by the beginning of the twentieth century, Japan was on par with such an advanced country as Great Britain.
5. Formation of political parties.
Throughout the early Meiji years (until 1877, the date of the defeat of the Satsuma Uprising), Japan experienced a transition period, which was accompanied by rapid political activity of the population. At this time, the trends that subsequently led to the formation of political parties with their own programs were just emerging.
The core of political life was the peasant movement led by disgruntled samurai, which reached its peak during the first seven years after the Restoration and then quickly declined. In the subsequent period. The agrarian movement is characterized by the active participation of landowners who oppose the privileged position of the financial oligarchy. It was from the midst of this movement that the slogan, later picked up by broad sections of the population, came out: “Freedom and people's rights!” And it was the landowners, along with the samurai, who became the core of the broad “Movement for Freedom and People’s Rights” (Jiyuminkenundo), since they formed the basis of the Jiyuto Liberal Party, which stood at the head of the movement. Such a paradoxical, at first glance, situation - the participation of landowners in the political struggle - was explained as follows. Unlike the conservative European landowner (the English squire, for example), the Japanese landowner united in himself, on the one hand, a semi-feudal landowner charging high rents from the peasants, but on the other hand, he was also a capitalist merchant. And it was this, the second side of the Japanese landowner, that forced him to participate in the political struggle. Thus, the “Council of Sake Producers Entrepreneurs” (“sake” is a Japanese traditional rice wine) formed in 1880 in Osaka became the core of the Jiyuto Liberal Party formed the following year. At the initiative of the Council of Entrepreneurs, at the very first conference of the Liberal Party, its participants spoke out against the government's planned increase in the tax on yeast and put forward the slogan "Freedom of entrepreneurship!" Along with this, landowners were very concerned about the high land tax, which, despite the fact that the government reduced it from 3% to 2.5%, in total budget revenues accounted for the lion's share (See table on page 33).
At a time when landowners, who bore the brunt of industrialization, were experiencing great problems due to the steady decline in rice prices, financiers and industrialists close to the government received considerable subsidies, generous government contracts and monopoly trading rights. That is why the landowners opposed the bureaucratic ruling circles and those who stood behind them - large moneylenders and bankers, and were actively involved in the movement "For Freedom and People's Rights!" and "For freedom of enterprise!" It is worth paying attention to this feature of the Japanese transition to capitalism: Japanese liberalism had its roots in the countryside, in contrast, for example, to the English, which was a movement of urban merchants directed against the conservative landowning nobility.
Support liberal opposition and the force that constantly pushed it was the huge masses of the peasantry and tenants, who advocated the reduction of taxes and the introduction of representative institutions. However, due to the nature of peasant labor and isolation in isolated villages, it was difficult for them to take an active part in the broad political movement. And therefore, naturally, the most active in Jiyuminkenundo were large landowners, and the leadership of the movement was concentrated in the hands of the largest landowners and representatives of the former samurai. The ideological leaders of the movement were mainly former samurai from the Tosa and Hizen clans. They enjoyed great authority among the opposition, since they were representatives of the military nobility (shizoku) and were one of the leaders of the Meiji Ishin restoration, however, they were pushed aside by the samurai of the Satsuma and Choshu clans from participating in the leadership of the country.
In October 1881, the leaders of Jiyuminkenundo created Japan's first political party. "Rikken Jiyuto"(Constitutional Liberal Party, and later simply the Liberal Party), whose program included the slogans “freedom”, “equality”, “brotherhood”. In addition, the absence of mention of the monarchy in the Party Program gave it a liberal character.
United within the Liberal Party, the movement of small landowners and peasants, and led by large landowners and samurai, advocated “people's rights,” “freedom of enterprise” and “the formation of a representative body.”
Of course, the real goals of the leaders of the movement were, in essence, limited to winning certain benefits for a fairly narrow circle, as can be seen from the following document. To the objection of one of the “statists” Kato Hirayukki () against the creation of a representative body in the country, the leaders of the liberal movement Soejima, Goto, Itagaki wrote in a response letter: “Now, if this house of representatives is created, we do not propose to immediately introduce universal suffrage. We would propose to give this right, first of all, only to samurai, rich peasants, and merchants, since it was they who gave the leaders of the Meiji restoration."
The party's chairman was Itagaki Taisuke, and its program consisted of the following objectives: 1) expand freedoms, protect people's rights and promote prosperity and transformation of society; 2) direct their efforts to create a perfect state constitutional system; 3) to carry out their tasks, establish cooperation with other parties that set themselves similar tasks. The program formulations mentioned such concepts as “freedom”, “equality”, “brotherhood”, but there was no mention of the monarchy, which immediately placed the party in the category of radical. The significance of the Liberal Party lies in the fact that it was the first political party on a national scale, and also in the fact that it became a symbol of the victory of the idea of the right of a national party to take part in the political life of the country. Using the example of the liberal party, we see that Japanese liberalism was quite moderate from the very beginning. Later, when the Seiyukai Party was created from the fragments of the Liberal Party in 1900, this liberalism would turn into its opposite - unyielding conservatism.
Another political party that emerged in March 1882 was Reform Party (Kaishinto), which was headed by Okuma Shigenobu, who left his government post. It was the party of the bourgeoisie, the out-of-work officials and urban intelligentsia. In addition, it included some large merchants and industrialists, such as Iwasaki Yataro, the founder of the Mitsubishi company. This party was also supported by the prominent Japanese educator Fukuzawa Yukichi. The party program was very moderate, and its principles, based on the ideas of English liberalism and utilitarianism, were most fully expressed by the party slogan “moderately but firmly; slowly but surely.”
In March of the same 1882, another one was created - Constitutional Imperial Party (Rikken Teiseito), which, in essence, was a pro-government party. Conservative in nature, its main goal was to paralyze the influence of the other two parties. It included major government officials, as well as representatives of the highest court circles. The formal leaders of the party, Ito Hirobumi, Inoue Kaoru and Yamada Akiyoshi, sought to use the party as a counterweight to other political parties, with the goal of establishing a system of statism in the country along the German model. However, this party, in terms of popularity in the country and organizationally, turned out to be the weakest. Its leaders had virtually no interest in party activities. Therefore, in reality, the first two parties were active in Japan at that time. Despite their programmatic differences, the two parties were not very different from each other. However, there was no cooperation between them. Moreover, they constantly attacked each other, which was explained by the different positions of their leaders, defending different regional and economic interests.
Each of these three parties had its own press, and heated discussions took place between them, such as disputes over sovereignty. Supporters of the Liberal Party argued that sovereignty belonged to the people, and therefore the constitution should be created by an assembly elected by the people. Supporters of the Constitutional Party defended their point of view, according to which sovereignty belongs entirely to the emperor and only he alone has the right to grant a constitution to the people. The Reform Party took a compromise position in this debate, arguing that sovereignty belonged to both the emperor and the people's assembly.
The growing influence of parties in the provinces caused concern on the part of the government, as a result of which in June 1882 it passed a law prohibiting parties from creating local branches, and according to which provincial governors were given the right to limit the activities of parties in their territories. As a result of this step by the government, many regional branches of parties were dissolved, which, however, did not reduce the activity of the liberal party. Some of the members of the radical wing took an active part in peasant protests. The first such uprising broke out in Fukushima Prefecture in 1882. The reason for this uprising was outrage at the arbitrariness of the prefectural governor, who, very zealously implementing the government law banning parties, did not want to take into account the decision of the prefectural assembly and arrested members of the Liberal Party from this assembly. After the suppression of the uprising, its leaders were sentenced to prison. The government used the Fukushima incident to attack the entire Freedom and People's Rights Movement (Jiyu minken undo). Almost the same year, an uprising broke out in Takada (Niigata Prefecture), and in 1884, an uprising in Chichibu (Saitama Prefecture), which was destined to become a milestone in the history of the liberal party.
The fact is that the leaders of the local organizations of this party were often more radical than the leadership at the center, which, as already said, was in the hands of landowners and entrepreneurs. As government repression intensified, local organizations leading the popular movement, along with the demand for the introduction of representative institutions, began to put forward demands for lower rents, which alarmed the party leaders, since this already affected their own interests. Therefore, together with the condemnation of violent actions, and in order to dispel suspicions of incitement to rebellion, at the general congress, which took place in Osaka in October 1884, the dissolution of the liberal party was announced "pending better times when conditions will be created for its restoration." . In December 1884, the leader of the Kaishinto reform party, Okuma Shigenobu, along with his supporters left the party, after which the reform party actually ceased to exist.
Already during the period of parliamentary activity, the seiyukai party was created from separate groups of the liberal party and the reform party in 1900. This was the last reform of the old Liberal Party, which had become dominated by large landowners. It was led by influential officials such as Ito Hirobumi, Prince Sayonji..., and its program became completely opposite to the previous program of the liberal Jiyuto Party.
Scattered local uprisings led by radical followers of the Liberal Party continued for several years. The largest of them: several uprisings in Nagoya in 1884, in 1885 - an uprising in Kabasan (Ibaraki Prefecture), in the same year - an uprising in Iida (Aichi Prefecture), in 1886 an uprising in Shizuoka, and others. After the dissolution of the first political parties, representatives of the political opposition, led by Goto Shojiro, created the Association of General Consent (Daido Danketsu), which was gradually joined by radical representatives of the intelligentsia and the petty bourgeoisie.
So, it should be noted that a feature of Japanese liberalism was its reliance on the rural population, in contrast to Europe, where victorious liberalism always relied mainly on the financial power of the urban merchants and the centralized political organization of the urban masses. The isolation of the rural population, for whom local problems were always more important than distant urban ones, frequent internal clashes - all this led to failures, splits in the movement itself and, ultimately, to the collapse of the entire movement.
3. Reorganization of the country's state apparatus.
Meiji Constitution.
Against the backdrop of widespread mass protests, the government began to carry out the necessary administrative reforms in order to strengthen the executive power in the country. In his manifesto for the restoration of imperial power, Emperor Meiji promised that the Japanese people "will participate in public discussion." Very soon, to implement this idea, both in government bodies and in social movements, many proposals arose about future forms of the constitutional structure. One of the leading Meiji leaders, Ito Hirobumi, already two years after the restoration, visited the United States in 1870 to study the American constitutional system. It is curious that the American constitution became for Ito Hirobumi not so much an example to follow, but rather an example of what should not be included in the Japanese constitution. He believed that the American republican constitution was poorly suited to Japanese political conditions.
In April 1875, the emperor's decree on the gradual transition to a constitutional system was published. For this purpose, institutions such as House of Elders (genroin), Supreme Court of Justice (tasinin) and other organs. And in 1879, the government instructed all advisers to provide their written views on the introduction of a constitutional system. A huge number of points of view have emerged regarding the future structure of the country. Discussions on this issue sometimes resulted in heated confrontations. As a result, for example, Okuma Shigenobu, who expressed views close to those of the “freedom and people's rights movement,” was relieved of his position as a government adviser in October 1881. Somewhat later, his supporters were also removed from the government. These events became the basis for the creation of the second opposition “reform party” mentioned above.
To realize the emperor's promise to create a parliament in 1889, Ito Hirobumi was again sent in 1882 - this time to Europe - to study the constitutions of European countries. Returning in August 1883, he launched a number of initiatives. In particular, at his proposal, in order to form the upper house of peers in the future parliament, as a counterbalance to the lower house of representatives, in July 1884 it was adopted decree introducing aristocratic titles. Following the model of Bismarck's Germany, 5 titles were introduced: prince, marquis, earl, viscount and baron. The new nobility was created from the former court nobility "kuge", feudal nobility "daimyo", senior officers of the army and navy, as well as those who distinguished themselves by impeccable service during the Meiji Restoration.
In the process of creating a new administrative and political system, great importance was attached to reforming the education system. In 1880, strict state control was established over first and second level schools. In 1881, the University of Tokyo was reorganized and became educational institution to train future officials. The former relatively independent organization of faculties was replaced by a system of strict centralized control by the rector, who was responsible for his activities only to the Minister of Education. Kato Hirayukki was appointed rector of the University of Tokyo.
At the same time, work continued on the creation of a constitution. In 1884, the Bureau for the Study of Constitutional Systems was created, headed by Ito Hirobumi. Besides him, the Bureau included three more people: Inoue Kowashi, Kaneko Kentaro and Ito Miyoji. This Bureau reported directly to the Ministry of the Imperial Household, which practically excluded any external influence. In order to eliminate disagreements when adopting the constitution, at the suggestion of Ito Hirobumi, the Privy Council – the highest advisory body under the emperor. Council members were appointed by the emperor himself from among the highest officials. Ito was appointed chairman of the council, who therefore resigned from the post of prime minister. The functions of the Privy Council were to formulate criticisms of the constitution. Thus, further work on the development of the text of the constitution continued within the Privy Council. The work took place in complete secrecy (following the example of the developers of the American Constitution), in the country residence of Ito Hiobumi in the vicinity of Yokosuka. The Emperor took part in all meetings of the Privy Council dedicated to work on the constitution.
Ito Hirobumi's next step was the reform of the state apparatus in December 1885, again on the German model. According to the new law, instead of the abolished State Council (Dajōkan, or daijokan), a cabinet of ministers (naikaku) was created, which established a clear distribution of responsibilities of ministers, whose activities were controlled by the chairman of the council of ministers. A total of 10 ministries were established: the imperial court, foreign affairs, internal affairs, finance, military, naval, justice, education, Agriculture and trade, communications. The first prime minister was Ito Hirobumi, through whose efforts a system of examinations was introduced for officials to occupy positions, excluding officials of the highest ranks.
As for regional authorities, elected prefectural and city assemblies were introduced here, to which persons who paid at least 10 yen in state tax could be elected. City mayors were elected from the members of city assemblies, but since they did not receive remuneration for their work, it is clear that to occupy this position it was necessary to have considerable income.
As promised by the emperor, work on the text of the constitution was completed by 1889. The ceremony of proclamation of the constitution took place in the imperial palace on Empire Day, February 11, 1889. Emperor Mutsuhito (Meiji) handed over the text of the constitution to Prime Minister Kuroda Kiyotaka, symbolizing granting of a constitution to the people by the emperor. At the same time, the emperor said:
“We, by virtue of the supreme power that We inherited from Our royal ancestors, hereby promulgate this unchangeable fundamental law for Our current subjects and their descendants... We inherited the rights of state supremacy from Our ancestors and bequeath them to Our descendants. Both We and they will implement them in accordance with the provisions of the constitution, now bestowed and granted to the people by Us."
Thus, from that moment on, Imperial Japan began to live according to the constitution, which went down in history under the name “Meiji Constitution”.
Formally, there was an article in the constitution that provided for the possibility of changing it, but since the constitution was “granted” by the emperor to the Japanese people, any initiative to change it could belong only to the emperor, and the right to interpret the constitution belonged to the courts, and, as the highest authority, to the Privy Council. And, consequently, any attempt to change the constitution by voting, by a court decision or even by the House of Parliament would put the initiator of such an attempt outside the law, and therefore no one set out to do this. The Cabinet of Ministers, according to the constitution, was responsible not to parliament, but to the emperor.
According to the constitution, Japan established bicameral parliament, consisting of an upper house of peers, and a lower house of representatives. If deputies were elected to the lower house, then the formation of the upper house of peers took place in a more complex way, on the basis of a special imperial decree. It included members of the imperial family, senior representatives of the titled nobility and persons specifically appointed by the emperor. As a rule, these were senior government officials and leading business representatives. The House of Representatives was formed on the basis of a special law. It should be noted that Ito Hirobumi deliberately did not include articles on suffrage in the constitution, hoping that a separate law would be adopted on this issue. This electoral law was passed in 1890, and it granted the right to vote to men over 25 years of age who had paid a direct tax (land, income or business tax) of at least 15 yen to the state for at least one year preceding the year of drafting. lists. A candidate for deputy could be a man at least 30 years old, capable of paying a fairly high cash deposit.
Thus, as a result of the “Meiji Restoration,” Japan followed the path of a constitutional and even parliamentary monarchy, which, it must be said, was very different from the “classical” English model. Thus, since the constitution was “granted” by the emperor, the responsibility of the institutions of power existed not before the people, whose main “aspirations” the constitution is supposed to express, but before the emperor. The presence of a parliament, which could only influence the government, did not change the essence of power, since the cabinet of ministers was responsible to the emperor, and the upper house had the right to veto the decisions of the lower house. In addition, soon after the first political battles and government crisis under the emperor, another extra-constitutional body was created - the institution of lifelong advisers to the emperor (genro). Therefore, despite the existence of a constitution, some authors characterize the government system of Japan during the Meiji era as close to absolutism - so strong was the monarchical component in the power structure of this country.
Conclusion.
The modernization of Japan, which took place under the slogan of the “Meiji Restoration” (Meiji isin), was a compromise between conservative forces and supporters of the renewal of Japanese society. Conservatives agreed to renewal in certain areas public life, and supporters of renewal, in turn, chose the path of updating the social system while preserving and maintaining traditions. And here we can once again be convinced of the Japanese’s commitment to the fundamental principle of the Japanese worldview - the harmony of “wa”. Unlike Europe, in Japan people from feudal principalities and representatives of commercial and industrial capital easily adapted to the requirements new era, which prevented serious social conflicts so characteristic of societies in transition (neighboring China, for example).
You should also pay attention to the environment in which the changes took place. The new Japanese leaders were forced to undertake the reconstruction of the country in the face of the threat of foreign invasion, which constantly weighed on the country.
Moreover, Japan faced the danger of large-scale penetration of foreign capital into the country, which had settled in Japanese port cities since the first Meiji years. This sense of external danger was fueled by the presence in Japan (until 1899) of the institution of extraterritoriality for foreigners, characteristic of European colonies in Asia, and the lack of its own tariff autonomy, which Japan achieved only in 1910.
The government placed the entire burden of expenses on creating a new society, first of all, on the shoulders of Japanese peasants, thanks to whose labor the accumulation of capital necessary for carrying out reforms was achieved. The arrival in the government of representatives of the feudal nobility, trade and usurious capital, and not the bourgeoisie, as happened in Europe, predetermined the specifics of the capitalist development of Japan, where feudal remnants were largely preserved: landlord ownership of land, rent in kind, and semi-feudal working conditions in the enterprises. This, in turn, affected the nature and direction of the reforms themselves carried out by the new government.
The lag behind Western countries in the field of engineering and technology was especially noticeable, so modernization in this direction became the policy of the new government. At the same time, from foreign experience, first of all, what met the needs of the country was adopted.
At that time, the only way to take a worthy place in the world and become a world-class power was to pursue an aggressive foreign policy and conquer colonies. Therefore, Japan naturally followed this path, putting forward the slogan “rich country - strong army” (fukkoku - kyohei). The Emperor became a symbol of revived self-awareness, a symbol of national unity. Aggressiveness has become the main direction in the foreign policy of Japanese leaders.
However, the changes in Japanese society during the Meiji Ishin period were a major breakthrough into the future. The Japanese reforms of the Meiji Restoration period were so significant for the country, and even revolutionary, that many Russian (Soviet) historians assessed these events as an “unfinished bourgeois revolution.”
However, most European and Japanese historians call these events the “Meiji Restoration”, since the main political changes were expressed in the restoration of monarchical power, the creation of a representative body - parliament, the preservation of the continuity of traditions and the establishment of the idea of deification of the emperor.
1. On the question of the genesis of capitalism in Japan // On the genesis of capitalism in the countries of the East. M., 1962.
2. Galperin socio-political history of Japan during the period of late feudalism. M., 1963.
3. On the question of the genesis of capitalism in Japan // On the genesis of capitalism in the countries of the East. M., 1962.
4. History of Japan. In 2 TT. Moscow, IVRAN, 1st ed. – 1999).
5. Molodyakov m Japan: over the barriers. M. AST-Astrel, 2005.385
6. The formation of capitalist Japan. Per. from English M., 1952.
7. Appearance modern state in Japan. M., IVL, 1961.
8. Essays new history Japan (). Ed. A. Galperin. M., IVL, 1958.
9. Paskov Japanese bourgeois historiography. Problems of the politics of Japan and China at the end of the 19th - first quarter of the 20th century. M., IVL, 1982.
10. Reflections on Japanese history. Sat. articles. M., 1996.
11. Meiji isin. The collapse of feudalism in Japan. M., Ed. in. lit., 1959.
12. Reischauer Edwin O. Japan The History of a nation. Tokyo, 1995.
13. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 5.6. Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Japanese chronology
new and recent periods of history.
In modern sociological literature, the term “modernization” has several interpretations. Most scientists understand it as the process of a society entering the path of capitalist development. There is another point of view, according to which “modernization” is understood as the process of transforming a traditional “Eastern” society into a “Western” type society. Below, we will return to this concept.
There are significant differences in the historical processes of East and West, and the famous line from R. Kipling’s poem “East is East, West is West, and they will never meet” became not only popular, but in the twentieth century it was developed in the form of scientific "East-West" discussions. Under this name the publishing house “Science. Eastern Literature" has published a number of collections of scientific materials on this topic.
For each class, each social group of society, there were strict rules regulating all aspects of life: from the details of the costume to the rules for conducting various ceremonies. Violation of these rules entailed punishment, and quite severe.
The term "clan" used in relation to feudal Japan comes from the Japanese character "han" and means "estate", that is, the territory in which the daimyo carried out political power, and from which he received his rice income. It must be borne in mind that in this case this term does not carry the concept of a generic unit, as is conveyed by the Scottish term “clan”.
It should be noted that although literal translation This word is "tramp" and in Japanese it does not have a negative meaning. The word "vagrant" here means "not tied to one place."
The size of the koku was not historically a constant value and varied depending on the area and era. Later, "koku" was standardized to 1.80391 hectoliters. Katori (kataku ori) is a tightly woven fine silk fabric. Tan is a measure of length for fabric, = 10.6 m.
Most often, newborn girls were killed. This situation is well shown in the wonderful film “The Legend of Narayama” (in Russian version).
Tilor Dennet. Americans in Eastern Asia, New York, 1922, p. 278.
Back in 1609, samurai from the Satsuma principality captured part of these islands and founded an administrative center here in Nawa. At the same time, the ruler of this island was allowed to recognize the sovereignty of the Chinese emperor over himself. The Satsuma clan actually carried out smuggling trade through these islands. For a long time, the uncertain status of these islands was a constant source of friction between the Japanese government and China. But as soon as the British and French demanded their “opening,” the Satsuma clan immediately supported the foreigners’ demand.
All illustrations from teaching aid: "Bijuaru rekishi (Visual history) Visual History. Niigata-ken han. Tokyo, Toho edition, no edition. P. 102.
Tylor Dennett. Americans in Eastern Asia. New York, 1922, p. 578. /Quote. in the city of Norman. The emergence of capitalist Japan. M., 1952, S. 38.
Bijuaru rekishi (Visual history) Visual History. Niigata-ken han. Tokyo, ed. "Toho", without g/ed. P. 104.
The trend of federalism, so popular in the initial period of the “Restoration,” can be clearly seen in Mr. Nomura’s letter dated January 1, 2001 addressed to the Comte de Mont Blanc. It says, in part: “The Japanese confederation under the chairmanship of the Mikado has now ceased to be a fantasy. His Majesty the Mikado will convene in Kyoto all Japanese daimyos who will constitute sovereign ward This chamber will decide all general questions..." (Maurice Courant, Les Clans Japonais sous les Tokugawa. Vol. 15. Paris., part I, p. 76-77.
See: G. Norman. Quote cit., p.86.
In 1897, the last shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, returned to Tokyo, and in June 1902 he was appointed a member of the upper house of parliament (the House of Peers). In 1910 he retired, and in 1913 Yoshinobu died.
The entire population of Japan in 1870 was 34.3 million people, including the number of ordinary samurai social there were 1 person (families), or approximately 5-6% of the total population. / Data taken from the work of G. Norman. Quote cit., p. 79.
And it should be noted that the samurai code “Bushido” (the way of the warrior) directly forbade samurai to engage in any activity other than the art of war.
To this we can add the attempt on the life of the head of government, Iwakura Tomomi. the Saga uprising in 1874, the Kumamoto uprising in 1876, the Hagi and Akizuki uprising and other incidents.
Kokusho Iwao. Meiji shonen hakusho ikki (Peasant revolts in the early Meiji period). In: "Meiji isin keizai shi kenkyu" (Studies in the History of Meiji Economics). Tokyo, 1930, p. 712.
As an example, we can cite the activities of the famous adventurer Yamada Nagamasa in Siam in the years.
In Soviet and even in a number of American works one can find statements that aggression is “intrinsic” in Japan. However, an analysis of the historical process of this country suggests the opposite: aggressive manifestations are the exception rather than the rule for Japan.
See: History of Japan. Ed. A. Zhukova. T. II. M., 1998, p. 31.
As stated in the law, “all officials must be replaced by others after 4 years of service.” The system of election (based on examinations) and rotation of officials exists in Japan to this day.
Bijuaru rekishi (Visual history) Visual History. Niigata-ken han. Tokyo, ed. "Toho", without g/ed.
This side of the Kempeitai's activities is described most fully in Richard Deacon's book "Kempeitai". (Richard Deacon. Kempei tai. The Japanese Secret Service. Then and Now. Tokyo, Japan, 1991. (in English)
The world legal system, in general, is divided into 2 types: continental law (based on written law, for the first time in the “Napoleonic Code”, adopted in almost all European countries) and case law (based on precedent / court decision /, adopted in England, USA and other American countries).
Refusing to continue the journey, Nikolai arrived in Vladivostok, where he laid the first brick in the foundation of the railway station of the Trans-Siberian Railway under construction. This station building still stands today.
Let us draw the reader's attention to this term once again. Leading experts in the field of Japanese modernization define modernization as, “first of all, technological transformations that guarantee the progressive development of society, which ultimately leads it to social reconstruction.” (See, for example: “Reflections on the process of modernization in Japan.” // In the book: “Reflections on Japanese history.” M., 1996. P. 55)
G. Norman. Quote cit., p. 152.
The "chiken" system lasted until 1889 and, as G. Norman figuratively notes, it played the role of scaffolding in establishing private ownership of land."
It must be borne in mind that engaging in productive activities according to the Bushido code (Code of Samurai Honor) was considered an unworthy, even shameful occupation.
By “free” labor is meant a situation in which workers, not owning the means of production, are forced to sell their labor power on the labor market.
Thus, American professor D. Murray, invited to Japan, worked for several years as an adviser to the Education Department.
The "Freedom and People's Rights Movement" reflected the discontent of various groups of the population: from former high-ranking samurai to landowners. The main demand of the movement, which expressed the line of the anti-government opposition, was the establishment of a representative body and the expansion of political rights of the entire population.
The fact is that the Japanese landowner was interested mainly in the turnover of agricultural products collected in the form of land rental payments into money at the highest possible price. Therefore, he was primarily interested in the price of rice. Thus, the landowner's interest in turning agricultural products into goods made him a capitalist entrepreneur.
Full name "Constitutional Liberal Party" (Rikken jiyuto).
Etatism (French Etat - state) is a concept meaning the active participation of the state in the economic life of society. Except in Germany, the second sex. XIX century, another example is Kemalist Turkey of the 1920s-1930s.
History of Japan. Ed. A. Zhukova. T. II. M., 1998, p. 117.
The hieroglyph “wa”, which expresses this concept, means “to maintain something in a state of moving balance, to balance one with the other, which allows the whole not to fall apart... In history, this is the ability to balance, resolve conflicts, reconcile warring parties inside and outside.” . (See:, Reflections on the process of modernization in Japan. // In the collection of articles "Reflections on Japanese history. RAS. M., 1996.)
It should be noted that, in the absence of other sources (wars of conquest, plunder of colonies, slave labor, etc., which was the case in European and American experience), the use of farmer’s labor for capital accumulation, which does not require serious investments, is objective. The Soviet experience of modernization followed the same path, albeit with Russian (Soviet) “specifics”.
On March 31, 1854, in the bay of Edo (Tokyo), a squadron of American “black ships” armed with artillery under the command of Commodore Matthew Perry dropped anchor for the second time. He demonstrated to the Japanese the Paixhans gun, which was the first naval bomb gun to fire explosive ammunition. Under the threat of force, he managed to conclude an unequal trade agreement, the Treaty of Peace and Amity, (although there was no talk of occupation or colonization of the country), which became a historical event and ended the isolation of Japan.
Since resistance was completely pointless, the authorities decided to take full advantage of the achievements of Europe and North America in order to be able to pursue their own independent policy in the future. Moreover, in 1863 the Royal Navy fiercely bombarded the southernmost Japanese city of Kagoshima as punishment for the murder of an English citizen there. Shimonoseki was also bombed during the joint expedition of England, America, Holland and France. In addition, the Japanese were well aware of the events in China, in which the Western powers harshly pursued their active colonialist policy.
Even in the times of Sakoku, along with the restriction of foreigners visiting the territory of Japan, its scientists carefully studied the “Dutch wisdom” (de. “Hollandische Lernen”) from books and borrowed from them useful information in the field of medicine, natural history and Newest technologies. In 1811, the “Institute for the Study of Foreign Books” was officially created, and many clans sent young people abroad for a limited period. As a result, in his reports, Perry noted with surprise the awareness of the Japanese. At that time, there were two attitudes in Japan: Sonno joi, which means: “Loyalty to the emperor, defeat of the barbarians” and Wakon yosai - “Eastern ethics, Western science”
From 1860 to 1867, seven “Diplomatic embassies and also for training” were sent from Japan to Europe and the USA, following the model of Petrine Russia of the early 18th century.
On February 3, 1867, his father Emperor Komei was succeeded by his 15-year-old son Mutsuhito, becoming the 122nd Emperor of Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate (the power of the supreme commander-in-chief - the shogun) was abolished after the storming of Edo (Tokyo) in the summer of 1868. The capital was moved from Kyoto to Tokyo, and the emperor was installed at the head of the state, whose power for two centuries was purely formal, and the emperor himself was a ritual figure with no real power. The young emperor was supported by four powerful landowning clans.
A characteristic feature of the worldview of the Japanese population has always been loyalty to the emperor and his veneration and deification. The authority of the imperial power, coinciding with a highly developed sense of the need to preserve national identity throughout the social strata of the state, ensured the rapid implementation of all measures necessary for modernization. Sonno Kaikotou - "Reverence for the Emperor who dominates the country" became the national slogan.
The following year, on January 3, 1868, a new government was formed. A new era of Meiji began, which means “enlightened rule.” After the coronation, the so-called “Five Charter Oath” was proclaimed by the emperor:
Establishment of advisory public councils.
Involving all segments of the population in resolving national issues.
Abolition of all outdated laws and class restrictions in business and financial activities.
Abolition of “wild customs” and their replacement with “simple laws of nature.”
Conducting a nationwide crusade for knowledge in order to strengthen the work of establishing imperial rule.
In Japanese history, this period was called Bakumatsu, which was marked by the final formation of two opposing political factions. On the one hand, these were national patriots, imperialist-minded supporters of the policy of going beyond the borders of the state in order to subjugate and take possession of territories that did not belong to Japan. On the other hand, there were traditionalist supporters of the shogunate, including samurai from the elite newly formed units, dissatisfied with the appearance of foreigners and the unequal treaties concluded.
From January 1868 to May 1869, the Boshin Civil War broke out in Japan, in which the shogun's troops, who had undergone military training from the French military mission that arrived in the country, were defeated in the decisive battle of the war at Toba and Fushimi. It is characteristic that European firearms were used in the war, as well as wooden cannons. Even the shogun's troops were dressed in European uniforms. After the war, the shogun's supporters received an amnesty, and some received positions in the new imperial administration.
In 1871, Prince Iwakura arrived in the United States of America, becoming the first official representative in the West in Japanese history.
In 1872, the first railway was built in Japan.
In 1880, the Japanese began to dress in European clothing.
An important factor that ensured the rapid implementation of reforms was the fact that over the previous century the state had accumulated significant capital, which ensured their investment.
The introduced constitution led to the creation of a bicameral parliament based on the English model. The formation of a new upper class began.
Based on the model of German legislation, a set of civil laws was drawn up, combining the guarantee of the provisions of the previously existing rules for the management of family property with the new provisions of the right to private property in market conditions.
Compulsory universal schooling and universal military service were introduced. The Gregorian calendar and newspapers were founded (already in 1868 there were 16 of them), as well as freedom of conscience.
At the same time, national industry grew and strengthened with the help of foreign capital and foreign specialists. Thus, England contributed to the start of shipbuilding (the first warship was laid down at a Japanese shipyard in 1905).
The domestically oriented Japanese economy was able to avoid heavy dependence on foreign capital. Already in 1911, the previously concluded unequal treaties were terminated and the state received full control over customs.
Industrialization began in Japan with the establishment of silk factories, followed by textiles by the 1880s, and heavy industry from the 1890s.
The population grew rapidly: in 1873 - 35 million, and by 1918 it became 55. With all this, the Japanese preserved their national culture in everything that was not related to borrowing knowledge from abroad.
