Coursework European roots in the toponymy of the United States. Toponymy of England
Very often the names of geographical objects are formed from personal names, in which case they are called anthropotoponyms(from Greek. anthropos- human). For example, city names: Ottery St Mary, St David's (Wales), Elizabethtown. In English, this type of toponyms is much less common than in Russian ( Ivanovka, Alekseevo, Fedorovka).
According to the structural (morphological) classification, toponyms are divided into 4 types: a) simple, b) derivatives, c) complex, d) compound.
Quantity simple toponyms significantly inferior to the number of complex and compound, and their etymologization is largely impossible, because many names are passed from other languages and are perceived as a pure basis. Simple non-derivative names consist only of the root word without any auxiliary formants: Comb, Barrow, Down, Stall, Mooreetc.
More common derivatives toponyms. They are formed by attaching a morphological affix to the root: Stanton, Kingston, Birmingham, Scarboroughetc.
The third type is complex toponyms. They consist of two morphemes that act as the basis of the toponym: Blackpool, brentside, wallingwells, Whitbarrowetc.
Composite toponyms are a phrase consisting of two or more parts of speech: Cold harbor, Standing stone, Barton under Needwood, Black Notleyetc.
According to the above classifications, any toponym can be characterized by the type of object it denotes and from the point of view of morphological structure. However, it is not always possible to establish the meaning of a toponym because of the existing problems of toponymy, which will be discussed below.
1.3. Problems of toponymy
The problem of toponymy lies in the fact that the interpretation of toponyms in some cases can be complicated. This is due to several reasons.
First, maybe name motivation lost. If the reason why this or that name is given at first glance does not seem obvious, then the explanation of the meanings of some toponyms can be difficult. There are names that originally referred to landscape features, such as a river or a hill, but have disappeared by our time. For example, in the name of the city Whichford or Watford(Warwickshire) element present ford, meaning a river, but the location of the river has not been known for a long time.
Secondly, it is possible erroneous replacement of some elements by others due to external similarity. Such elements of toponyms as suffixes den(valley) and don(hill), which came from the Old English language, are sometimes confused with each other and lose their original meaning. For example, city Croydon, located in the valley, and the city Willesden, located on a hill, should have had names Croyden and Willesdon.
Thirdly, the interpretation of the toponym can be difficult if its elements are multi-valued. Elements wich and wick have many meanings. Mostly suffixes wich/wick/wyke indicate a farm or settlement (city name Keswick the settlement in which the cheese is made is important). However, the suffix wich, also has a connection with the Latin word vicus, denoting a trading post. On the coast, suffix wick often of Norwegian origin and designating a bay or gulf (city Lerwick).
Another problematic element is the suffix –ey, as in the name of the city Romsey. This suffix, derived from Old English -eg, basically meaning "island". However –ey may also be derived from the Old English word haeg, denoting a fenced area, as in the name of a city Hornsey.
Order of elements can also serve as a reason for the complexity of the interpretation of toponyms. In the toponyms of the Germanic group of languages, and therefore in Old English and Old Norse, the main element usually comes at the end after its modifier, for example, the Old English toponym Elms well (town). It can be divided into constituent elements elm + well, where - well- the main element, denotes the main object and has the meaning "well, spring source", and elm- its modifier, has the meaning "elm, elm" and serves as a definition for the main object; the general meaning of the toponym is a well under an elm. In Celtic toponyms, the order is mostly reversed: the element denoting the main object (hill, valley, farm, etc.) comes first, so in the toponym Aber day(city) the main element is aber- (mouth of the river), and the general meaning of the toponym is the mouth of the river Dee.
Sometimes it makes it difficult to understand the content of the toponym false analogy. This phenomenon can be observed when new residents change existing names. This may be due to the fact that the inhabitants pronounce them according to their own style of pronunciation, regardless of the original meaning of the toponym. Thus the Old English place-name Scipeton, meaning "sheep farm", in modern English would have the form shipton, but instead converted to Skipton, since the Old English element sc(pronounced like "sh") was often perceived and pronounced as an Old Norse element sk, despite the fact that the Old Norse word for sheep was completely different.
Another reason for the difficulty of interpreting toponyms is reverse word formation, that is, the process by which names are produced from each other in the opposite direction to what is expected. Often a river with an outdated and forgotten name is renamed in honor of the city standing on its banks, and not vice versa. For example, a river flowing through a city rochdale, was named "Roch" as a result of this process.
It can be concluded that the interpretation of toponyms can be difficult due to a number of reasons: loss of name motivation, erroneous replacement of some elements by others due to external similarity, polysemy of toponym elements, order of elements, false analogy and reverse word formation. The presence of different linguistic sources can also complicate the interpretation of the toponym.
1.4. Various linguistic sources of toponyms
The place names of Great Britain are extraordinarily rich and varied, mainly due to changes in language and culture.
The toponyms of Great Britain contain elements that take their roots from the languages of at least five different peoples - Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Scandinavians, French. All these peoples contributed to the toponymy of the country and made English toponyms what they are today.
In 400-350 BC the Celtic languages became widespread in the British Isles. Hence, it is believed that many British toponyms are, if not completely, then partially Celtic in origin. Toponyms that originated from the Celtic language are considered to be primordial.
The largest number of Celtic place names is observed in the north and west of the British Isles (especially Wales and Cornwall). In Cornwall, common Celtic elements are prefixes tre - , pen - , and lan - . In Wales, the prefix llan - . In the county of Cumbria, Celtic place names mostly reflect the landscape features of the area (for example, mountains Blencathra and Helvellyn). The Celts also gave names to many rivers such as ehen and Cocker. In Northern Scotland, elements of place names are of Gaelic origin, for example loch (designation of the lake) and glen . Here are some examples of Celtic elements and their meanings: aber - the mouth of the river, the confluence of the rivers ( Aberystwyth, Aberdyfi, Aberdeen, Aberuthven); coombe – low valley ( Woolacombe, Doccombe); glen – narrow valley ( Rutherglen, Glenarm, Corby glen); lan , lhan , llan - church; village with a church Lanteglos, Lhanbryde, Lanercost, Llanbedr Pont Steffan, Llanybydder, Llanwenog, Llanwnen); keth , Cheth - forest ( Penketh, Culcheth)
There are only about 300 toponyms left from the Romans. After the end of domination, Roman settlements were renamed and had suffixes caster /chester from lat. castra (camp ). Another partially surviving Roman element of place names was pons (bridge), which in Wales took the form « pont", eg Pontypridd, Pontypridd, Pontheugh. In England, some place names contain the element street, derived from lat. strata (paved road), for example Chester-le-Street, Spittal-in-the-Street, Streatham.
Some latin elements of British place names were borrowed in the medieval period and take the form of affixes. Are used magna and parva instead of the usual "great/little", for example Chew Magna,Wigston magna appleby magna, appleby Parva, Wigston Parva.
Other main Latin elements: colonia (-coln) – military settlement ( Lincoln); porta (-port) - gate ( stock port); fos , foss - canal, ditch ( River Foss, Fangfoss); cum - preposition "with" ( Salcott- cum- Virley, Cockshutt-cum-Petton)
In 449 AD The Angles, Saxons and Jutes began settling the British Isles. The Anglo-Saxons called their new country Engaland(country of the Angles), and their language was called English which modern scholars call Old English or Anglo-Saxon. Since modern English directly developed from Old English, place names that are of Old English origin are considered native.
Most of the names for geographical features in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk were originally given by the Anglo-Saxons. The Old English words they used are very numerous. The following are the most common Old English elements: bourne , burn - Creek ( Ashbourne, blackburn, Bournemouth, eastbourne); don , den , dun - Hill ( Abingdon, Bredon, Willesden); ham - farm ( Rotherham, Newham, Nottingham); lea , ley , leigh (from leah) - piece of land cleared of trees and shrubs ( Barnsley, Hadleigh, Leigh); tun , tone - fenced area, farm ( Tunstead, Brighton, Coniston); well - well, spring source ( Elmswell, Bakewell); Weald , wold - hill covered with forest (Wealdstone, Stow-on-the-Wold, Southwold).
The toponymy of any country develops gradually, over a long period of time. In the same territories, peoples replace each other, leaving behind the names of mountains, rivers, seas, plains, places of residence, which are unforgettable, eternal monuments (perennial monuments)(Pei, 1965: 59) ethnic communities that once lived there.
In this sense, England is no exception. Germanic tribes, whose dialects formed the basis of the English language, conquered the British Isles in the middle of the 5th century. It is believed that the Celtic population that lived there was almost completely exterminated, but thanks to toponyms that have survived to our time, it becomes clear that under pressure from the Anglo-Saxons, part of the Celts escaped this sad fate, leaving to the west and north. Anglo-Saxon kingdoms formed on the conquered lands, which united by the end of the Old English period under the rule of Wessex into a single country of the Angles - Englelond.
In the 8th century England became the object of attacks by the Scandinavians, to whom the British gave common name- Danes. These were Germanic tribes coming from Norway and Denmark who spoke North Germanic dialects. The Scandinavian conquest ended with the formation of the "region of Danish law" - Danelagh, and later, the ascension to the English throne of the Danish king Canute, whose reign lasted eighteen years and was a relatively prosperous period in the life of England. The Scandinavians who migrated to England during the Danish domination were not Viking warriors from the victorious army, but mostly peaceful Scandinavian farmers (Gelling, 2002:111-113).
The next wave of conquerors of England came from the north of France. William of Normandy, having defeated the British at the Battle of Hastings, went to London, subjugating all the lands and cities along the way. On Christmas Day 1066 William's coronation ceremony took place at Westminster. The Norman Conquest changed the whole course of English history: England joined the pan-European historical process, entered into closer relations with the countries of the European continent. It was also the last conquest in the history of the British Isles.
All these historical events and the changes that followed them in the socio-political, economic and cultural life of England were reflected in the language, because they resulted in language contacts.
The term "language contact" was introduced by A. Martinet and became widely used after the work of UWeinreich “Languages in Contact". Prior to this, the term "mixing of languages" was used. The concept of "language contact" is interpreted more broadly than "mixing of languages", including the interaction of both different or closely related languages in structure, and dialects and dialects of the same language. Language contact implies an extremely wide class of language processes due to various kinds of interaction of languages (Maslov, 1987: 195-220). During the interaction of languages, especially for a long time, bilingualism of a part of the population arises, which results in linguistic interference, which can occur at any language level - phonetic interference, grammatical interference, lexical interference (Weinreich, 1999: 7-41). Within the framework of the theory of language contacts, there are different interpretations of the concepts of interference and borrowing: the first can be considered as a process, and the second - as a result of the process. In this work, the term "borrowing" is used, which is understood as a kind of interference that occurs during linguistic interaction (Rosenzweig, 1972: 24), i.e., lexical interference.
The result of language contacts in the British Isles was a large number of borrowings in English. According to some data, up to 70% of the words in its lexical composition are borrowed from other languages. This fact has repeatedly given rise to fears that the English language may lose its originality, may be absorbed by the language of the conquerors. However, this did not happen: the borrowed vocabulary obeyed the action of all the language laws of the English language (sound, grammatical) and became an integral part of its vocabulary fund, which also includes toponymic vocabulary.
The toponymy of any language is the most stable layer of vocabulary, passed down from generation to generation, remaining in the memory of people, apparently due to the peculiarity of its function in the language - address-indicative, and its linguoculturological component, which reflects geographical, historical, cultural, social and other facts of the life of society. Toponymy is always historical. She talks about the perception of the surrounding world by society in different periods of its history (Gusarova, 2014: 42-57). The historical aspect of the toponymic study of English vocabulary is based on knowledge of those historical events that led to language contacts and, ultimately, to borrowings.
Toponymic systems can be described in different ways: from the point of view of the structure of toponyms, by the type of denoted denotation, by the degree of transparency of motivation, etc. For the analysis of borrowings in English toponymy, it seems necessary to analyze etymological and cultural analysis of English toponyms. The material of this study was the names of settlements (oikonyms) of three counties of England: Derbyshire, located in the central part of the British Isles, Bedfordshire, which is part of East Anglia, and Cumberland, located in the north of the country. The reason for choosing these counties is their geographical position, which ensures the diversity and uniqueness of toponymic names (north, center and southeast). But the main factor in the choice was their rich historical past, which manifested itself in linguistic contacts with the Celts, Scandinavians and French. Based on this, it can be assumed that the oikonyms of these counties are heterogeneous and contain traces of different ethnic groups. The language material is selected according to the works of the Toponymic Society (English PlaceName Society, EPNS) (Armstrong, Mawer, Stenton, 1950-1952; Cameron, 1959; Mawer, Stenton, 1969; Smith, 1924,1959).
The toponymy of England as a system both structurally and semantically took shape by the end of the Old English period. At this time, the Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes), who initially formed a number of kingdoms on the territory of the British Isles and endlessly fought among themselves for hegemony, were united under the rule of Wessex. strong royalty, a formidable external enemy in the person of the Scandinavians, contributed to the unity of the once disparate and warring kingdoms. Now they are aware of themselves as a single nation - angelcynn, living in the territory of a single country - Englelond.
The original toponymic picture is well represented on the map of modern England. The etymology and semantics of toponyms provides quite a lot of socio-cultural information. Among the toponyms that developed in that period, several types can be distinguished:
- 1) names indicating the physical and geographical features of places of residence: Girtford
- 2) names indicating typical types of flora: Ashford
- 3) names indicating typical representatives of the fauna: Barlow 4) descriptive, evaluative names: Howbury
- 5) names indicating ownership: Charlesworth
6) names indicating the social life of the Anglo-Saxons: Swineshead
Toponymic naming during creation is always motivated. It reflects an important characteristic of the denotation for a native speaker. Anglo-Saxon toponyms are a clear illustration of this. The physical and geographical characteristics of the objects of the outside world, its flora and fauna, undoubtedly, were of paramount importance for the society of the ancient period: they could be used as boundaries of territories, they could serve as a means of protection or warning, and ensure the life of the society in different ways. All this is reflected in the system of toponyms of the Old English language.
The Anglo-Saxons who conquered the British Isles were barbarians. They dealt barbarously with the Celts who lived there, destroying most of the population, and those who managed to avoid such a fate were forced out to the northern and western outskirts of the islands. However, of course, linguistic contacts (of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic languages) took place, and a layer of a bilingual population appeared, at least in adjacent territories. The consequence of this was a layer of Celtic borrowings. In modern English, in its literary norm, there is a surprisingly small number of Celtic borrowings (there are more of them in dialects). This is explained within the framework of the theory of language shift by "rapid language death" (sudden language death)(Tristram, 1999: 15-19).
Most of the Celtic borrowings in English are toponymic vocabulary. Of the three ranges chosen for the study, examples of Celtic place names were found only in Cumberland. All toponyms of a given origin can be combined into one semantic group, since, despite structural differences, they all describe the physical and geographical features of the area to which the oikonym refers: Crick
In the toponymy of England, an important niche is occupied by a layer of Scandinavian borrowings. If we compare them with Celtic borrowings, it should be noted that they are very numerous, semantically diverse, and are found in the territories of all counties of interest to us. The Scandinavian trace is presented not only in the form of borrowing purely Scandinavian toponyms of any structure (simple, complex), but also in the form of hybrid formations, where one of the topographic bases is Anglo-Saxon. In the analyzed material, there are types of toponyms-oikonyms similar to Anglo-Saxon ones:
1) names indicating the physical and geographical features of the area: Wasdale
2) names indicating types of flora: Birches, The Birks
3) names indicating species of fauna: Derby
- 4) descriptive, evaluative naming: Caldbeck
- 5) names indicating ownership: Bondhay
- 6) names indicating economic activity: Ding Bank
In general, Scandinavian oikonyms are both structurally and semantically similar to the already existing Anglo-Saxon names, they organically became part of Old English toponymy, which is explained by the belonging of both languages to the Germanic language group and the proximity of the cultural level of development of society in this historical period.
The French influence in the analyzed material manifested itself to a much lesser extent than the Scandinavian one. However, oikonyms with French elements are easily recognizable to this day. This is facilitated by both the preserved French spelling and the semantics of borrowed toponymic elements, which differ significantly from English (Germanic). It seems somewhat difficult to classify toponyms-oikonyms with French elements according to those types that quite clearly characterize the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian material. You can give a single example, indicating, probably, the physical and geographical characteristics of the area: Egremont
So, summing up, we note that the modern English toponymic system (in particular, oikonyms) developed gradually over many centuries. Language contacts, which were the result of a number of historical events, led to a large number of borrowings in the toponymy of Great Britain. The core, the basis of the English toponymic system was the Anglo-Saxon geographical names, which developed as a system by the end of the Old English period. She absorbed the Celtic substrate, and in the following periods of her historical development replenished with borrowings from the Scandinavian and French languages. All foreign toponymic elements adopted by the language, sometimes very numerous, were assimilated by it, subjected to the action of English language laws and entered integral part into the English toponymic system, supplementing and enriching it. Changes in the nomination process go from using the real features of named objects to reflecting the social and cultural life of society. The nature of toponyms changed from one ethnic group to another, enriching the English toponymic system and forming a unique mosaic on the map of modern England.
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
NIZHNEKAMSK MUNICIPAL INSTITUTE
COURSE WORK
in the discipline "History and culture of the countries of the studied languages"
Topic: European roots in US place names
Nizhnekamsk 2011
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………… 3
CHAPTER 1. TOPONYMS AS A LINGUISTIC PHENOMENON…. 6
- Toponym concept………………………………………….. 6
The problem of toponymy…………………………………….. 7
Typology of toponyms……………………………………... 8
2.1 Various linguistic sources of toponyms…………….. 17
2.2 Composition…………………………………………… .. 19
2.3 Semi-suffix –wood……………………………………….. 20
2.4 Formant –dale………………………………………………. 21
2.5 Formant –mead……………………………………………… 22
2.6 Formation of derivative toponyms…………………..... 23
2.7 Suffix –ville……………………………………………… 24
2.8 Suffix –ton……………………………………………….. 27
2.9 Suffix –burg……………………………………………… 28
2.10 Suffix –ia……………………………………………….. 29
2.11 Suffix –polis………………………………………… …. thirty
2.12 Town……………………………………………………….. 31
2.13 City………………………………………………………… 32
2.14 Anthroponyms…………………………………………….. 33
2.15 Urbanonyms …………………………………………….. . 36
2.16 Oronyms………………………………………………….. 37
2.17 Hydronyms……………………………………………….. 38
CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………… 43
REFERENCES……………………………………………….... 45
INTRODUCTION
The territory of the United States is of undoubted interest in the study of toponymy, firstly, because toponymy as a system of the English language on a large scale began to form quite recently, from the 18th century, and all stages of its formation are well traced and documented. Secondly, the toponymic system was formed as a result of the settlement of the territory, the aboriginal toponymy of which presented a significant difficulty for Europeans to assimilate. Further, it is significant that the United States was settled by immigrants from various countries, speakers of other languages. The specificity of American toponymy lies in the fact that migration flows went to the United States from different territories, here "toponymic models and toponymic tastes" were mixed. Material from various linguistic spheres is drawn into American toponymy, initially heterogeneous and genetically little connected, which is then subjected to powerful alignment and leveling under the influence of the dominant English language. Thus, the study of American place names is closely connected with the problem of borrowing other people's place names in the English-speaking environment and, more broadly, with the problem of the interaction of languages.
It is difficult to imagine the modern world without geographical names. Each toponym carries a variety of information: historical, geographical, linguistic, since geographical names are evidence of the historical conditions of the eras when they arose, formed and spread in certain countries.
The problems of toponymy were dealt with by such Russian linguists as V.I.Dal, A.V.Superanskaya, L.V.Uspensky. A great contribution to the study of English toponyms was made by the Swedish linguist E. Ekvol, the English linguist R. Coates, and the English toponymist M. Gelling. Also, toponyms were studied by such English and American linguists as O. Padel, R. Remsey, A. Smith, G. Stewart, W. Watson and others.
Despite the long history of research and the presence of a significant number of works devoted to the study of toponyms, there are still many problems that make it difficult to interpret toponyms, controversial issues related to determining the sources of toponyms and requiring closer attention not only from linguists, but also historians.
The work is relevant due to the fact that the toponym carries the character of national identity, it, in addition to the historical, territorial and natural-geographical features of the living conditions of the people, also reflects such a characteristic of the nation as a mental warehouse, imprinted in traditions, customs, folklore. This circumstance is especially important when studying a foreign language culture, in particular when studying a foreign language. Toponymy, to a greater extent than any other lexical subsystem, reflects the peculiarities of the specific culture of a given human group. The name, like all other elements of the language, manifests itself in society, and without society its culture does not exist.
The purpose of this course work is to identify European roots in the toponymy of the United States.
To achieve this goal, it is necessary to perform the following tasks:
- to study the concept of a toponym;
consider the typology of toponyms;
explore the problems of toponymy;
study the features of toponyms that exist in the United States;
analyze geographic names.
The object is toponymy as a branch of linguistics.
Structure: the work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of references.
The introduction identifies the problem, substantiates the relevance of the study, defines the purpose, objectives of the study, as well as the subject and object of the work.
The first chapter defines the concept of a toponym, considers the typology of toponyms, problems of toponymy.
The second chapter analyzes the toponyms of the United States in order to identify European roots in their origin.
In conclusion, the results of theoretical and practical research of toponyms are presented. The bibliography includes the titles of works by Russian and foreign linguists and dictionaries, the material of which is used in the course of the research work.
CHAPTER 1. TOPONYMS AS A LINGUISTIC PHENOMENON
In order to consider toponyms as a linguistic phenomenon, it is necessary to define the concept of a toponym, conduct a typological study of toponyms, study the problems of toponymy and find out which languages are the sources of toponyms found in the United States.
- Toponym concept
Within the framework of onomastics, one can single out a separate science - toponymy. There are various definitions of the concept of toponymy. V.A. Nikonov gives the following definition: toponymy is an integral part of onomastics that studies geographical names (toponyms), their meaning, structure, origin and distribution area. Toponymy explores proper names denoting the names of geographical objects, their origin, development, state of the art, spelling and pronunciation. The totality of toponyms of a particular area is called toponymy.
According to Pospelov E.M. toponymy is a collection of toponyms, distinguished by some feature: by territorial (US toponymy), by language (American toponymy), by chronological (toponymy of the XVIII century).
A toponym is usually understood as the denoting name of a geographical feature. In linguistics, this concept is studied from various angles: firstly, as an element of a certain toponymic system in relation to other toponyms (V.A. Malysheva,
FROM. Molchanova, I.N. Timoshchuk and others), and secondly, in the language system as a whole, in its relation to other linguistic units.
S.I. Ozhegov defines a toponym as the proper name of a separate geographical place (settlement, river, land, etc.). According to the Oxford Dictionary, a toponym is the name of a specific geographical feature.
A toponym is a word that has become the name of a place, country, space. The toponym as the name of any geographical object differs from the usual word of the language primarily in that the first, being a proper name, names the object, abstracting from concepts that could define homogeneous objects.
- The problem of toponymy
First, the motivation for the name may be lost. If the reason why this or that name is given at first glance does not seem obvious, then the explanation of the meanings of some toponyms can be difficult. There are names that originally referred to landscape features, such as a river or a hill, but have disappeared by our time.
Secondly, the interpretation of an element can be difficult if its elements are polysemantic.
The order of the elements can also be the reason for the complexity of the interpretation of toponyms. That is, in some languages the main element usually comes after its modifier.
Sometimes a false analogy makes it difficult to understand the content of the toponym. This phenomenon can be observed when new residents change existing names. This may be due to the fact that the inhabitants pronounce them according to their pronunciation style, regardless of the original meaning of the toponym.
Another reason for the difficulty in interpreting toponyms is reverse word formation, that is, the process by which names are produced from each other in the opposite direction to what is expected. Often a river with an outdated and forgotten name is renamed in honor of the city standing on its banks, and not vice versa.
- Toponym typology
Macrotoponyms (from the Greek makros - big) are proper names denoting the names of large geographical objects. First of all, these are the names of countries or a historical region, province (USA, Germany, Russia). Macrotoponyms usually correlate with ethnonyms (Bulgarians-Bulgaria, Saxons-Saxony). Correlation is also reversed when the ethnonym is derived from the name of the country (America-Americans, Australia-Australians).
The names of small uninhabited objects, or microtoponyms (from the Greek mikros - small), include physical-geographical and urban (meadows, fields, groves, streets, lands, tracts, hayfields, pastures, swamps, cutting areas, burnt areas, pastures, wells, key, whirlpool, threshold, etc.) objects. Usually they are known only to a limited circle of people living in a certain area.
Very often, the names of geographical objects are formed from personal names, and in this case they are called anthroponyms (from the Greek. anthropos - man). For example, city names: Townsend, Dickens, Stanley (Nebraska).
Hydronyms are the names of water bodies (rivers, lakes, seas, bays, straits, canals, etc.) and have a very high linguo-historical value, because the names of water bodies have been preserved for centuries and millennia and undergo little change. Thanks to the name of hydronyms, scientists can trace the ethnic and migration processes in the adjacent territory, the ways of settlement and the direction of migration of peoples, identify contacts and systemic connections between different ethnic groups and the historical change of one ethnic group by another, recreate the geographical conditions of the area, historical events, ethno-linguistic past, present the ethno-cultural background . In hydronyms, archaisms and dialectisms are steadily preserved; they often go back to the substratum languages of the peoples who lived in this territory in the past. This helps to use them to determine the boundaries of the settlement of ethnic communities. There are the following types of hydronyms:
- pelagonyms - the names of the seas (the North Sea, the Irish Sea);
limnonyms - names of lakes, ponds (Lake Elisabeth, Laguna Canyon);
potamonyms - names of rivers (Stinkingwater Creek, Spring River);
gelonyms- proper names swamps, wetlands (Alderbed Flow, Pocket Flat, Everglades).
A group is also distinguished, which includes the names of small settlements, that is, oikonyms (from the Greek oikos - dwelling, dwelling). These include villages and cities.
Urbanonyms (from Latin urbanus - urban), denoting the names of intracity objects, are divided into the following types:
- godonyms (from the Greek hodos - path, road, street, channel) - street names;
agoronyms (from the Greek agora - area) - the names of areas;
dromonims (from Greek dromos - running, movement, path) - names of communication routes.
1) simple names consisting of one word, such as Dale, Lea, Sale, Bedevyn, Rise;
2) complex names built according to a two-element model, where the repeating final element in its origin refers to the ancient Celtic or Germanic languages, and the descriptive element is represented by a common name or proper name, hydronym or other toponym (Acton, Winterton, etc.);
3) complex names formed with the help of affixation, where under the affixation A.Kh. Smith means adding a limiting definition expressed by a proper name or a geographical term (Thornton Watlass, Burton on the Hill, etc.).
As can be seen from the above diagram, the classification of A.Kh. Smith is based largely on the data of the morphological and etymological analysis of the toponyms under study.
One of the earliest variants of the toponymic classification was proposed by G.L. Mencken (Mencken, 1957).
G.L. Mencken believes that all place names can be divided into eight classes:
Class 1- includes names that are related in origin to proper names: Washington, Lafayette. This class also includes various complex names consisting of combinations of a proper name with a geographical term or a toponym-forming suffix: Pittsburg, Knoxville, Bailey's Switch, Hagerstown, Fort Riley.
Class 2- combines names - transfers from other states and regions of the country: New Albany, New York, New Windsor, Yorktown, etc., in other words, toponyms formed from other pre-existing toponyms by adding definitions like new ( new), west (western), north (northern), etc., as well as various geographical terms or toponymic suffixes. This class, according to Menken, also includes direct transfers of names from other states and states: Baltimore (name of a glacier in Alaska), Princeton (name of a peak in Colorado), numerous names like Rome, Alexandria, Troy, Sparta, Bremen, Hamburg , Warsaw, Stockholm, etc.
Class 3- covers all Indian names found in the United States.
Class 4 - groups names of Spanish, French, Dutch, German and Scandinavian origin, i.e. all non-English names except Native American.
Class 5- covers names, the source of which was biblical images and concepts: Conception, Beulah, Canaan, Jordan, Sharon, Adam, Eve, Aaron, Job, Sodom, etc.
Class 6- includes descriptive titles: Bald Knob, Sandy Hook, Bull Run, French Lick, Eagle Pass.
Class 7- includes names reflecting a rich animal and vegetable world country, its mineral wealth: Buffalo, Alligator, Rat Lake, Crawfish, Oil Ciby, Bromide, Goldfield, Coal Run, Cement.
And finally, in class 8, Menken combined all sorts of quirky, exotic names like Hell-for-Sartains, Undershirt Hills, Razzle-Dazzle, Cow Tail, Yellow Dog, Jump-Off, Poker City, Goose Hill, Skunktown, Pig Eye Lake, Hot Coffee, Burning Bear.
It seems interesting the classification of geographical names put forward by D.R. Stewart (Stewart, 1954), which is based on the analysis of the toponym formation mechanism itself. The author connects the emergence of a toponym with various psychological processes that underlie the formation of a particular name.
The author connects the emergence of a toponym with a different psychological process, namely, with the desire to define a given object in order to subsequently distinguish it from other objects,” Stewart notes that the study of the mechanism for selecting lexical means for the formation of names can provide the most valuable information. Accordingly, Stewart distinguishes nine classes of place names.
1. Descriptive names based on "a constant or changing characteristic of the qualities of the object being defined": Black Butte, Long Island, Crescent Lake, Granite Mountain, Roaring Run, Echo Rock, Stinking Spring, Bayport. This includes locative names (compass-point names): North River, South Island, etc.
2. Possessive names. Under this general heading, the author combines three subgroups:
a) names that include proper names: Culpi's Hill, Smith River;
b) names that include ethnic proper names: Mohawk River, Chinese Camp, American Fork;
c) the so-called mythological names associated with the objects of the religious cult of the Indians. As an example, the author cites the element wacan - "spirit, ghost" found in the geographical names of the Sioux Indians.
3. Names given for any incident (incident names): Hat Creek, Murder Creek, Earthquake Creek, Lightning Peak. Stewart also includes here most of the names associated with the names of animals (Wolf Creek, Antelope Creek), and names genetically associated with calendar holidays (calendar names): Independence Rock, Point Conception.
4. Commemorative names covering transfer names: Cambridge, Athens, Corinth, Hector, Ulysses, Hesperia, Apollo, San Francisco, San Diego, San Miguel, etc.; and names-dedications given in honor of prominent figures.
5. Euphemistic names, which were given to objects (mostly newly founded settlements) in the hope that they would help create a better future for cities. Thus, the name Athens (Athens) was often used in American toponymy as a symbol of culture and enlightenment. For the same reason, the newly created town was given the name Wheatland (“wheat land, expanses of wheat”), although the unplowed prairie still lay around it.
6. Manufactured names: Say-brook from the names Say and Brook; Alicel from Alice L. In a special subgroup, the author distinguishes the so-called border names (border names) - the names of settlements formed by merging the corresponding names of the bordering states: TEXARKANA< TEXAS + ARKANSAS.
7. Names based on one original name, subsequently transferred to a number of nearby objects. So, the names White Lake, White River, Whiteville were formed from White Mountain.
8. Names formed as a result of false etymology: Cayo Hueso > Key West, Chemir Couvert > Smackover.
9. The last class includes names that arose by chance as a result of various types of typographical and rewriting errors, which were later fixed: Tolo (Oregon) from Yolo; Darrington (WA) from Barrington, Plaski (Texas) from Pulaski.
In this regard, the classification of American geographical names proposed in 1934 by R.L. Ramsey, which later formed the basis of many works on the study of the toponymy of the state of Missouri (Ramsey, 1934). The Ramsey classification consists of several parts. The first of them has a clearly expressed semantic character and forms the following subgroups:
1) borrowed names, which include names transferred from other countries (New Madrid, Mexico, Moscow) and local name transfers (Cedar Prairie, Cedar Church, etc. were formed from Cedar Creek);
2) names associated with the history of both the entire state and a single state. These include:
a) names associated with the life of Indian tribes (Missouri, Osage, Moniteau);
b) French, Spanish and other foreign names reflecting the activities of the colonizers of America (St. Louis, Marais de Cygnes);
c) names associated with the struggle for the independence of the American colonies (Bunker Hill, Fayette, McDonald, etc.);
d) names associated with the Mexican war and the capture of California (Vera Cruz, California Prairie);
3) names derived from proper names (Tecumsch, Black Hawk, Lafayette, Columbia, Fulton, Elizabeth, Clark, etc.);
4) names associated with the physical and geographical characteristics of the state (Pineville, Poplar Bluff, Panther Den, Bee Creek, Galena, Richland, Lakeview, Valley City, Muddy Creek, Lost Branch). This subgroup also includes locative names (Centralia, South River, Westport);
5) subjective names, i.e. names that are originally associated with literature, advertising, various slogans, emblems, religion, etc. (Concord, Eureka, Sodom, Avalon, Enon, Silver Lake, Cure-All Springs). R.L. Ramsey believes that the lexico-semantic approach to the classification of toponyms is the main one and repeatedly emphasizes the importance of this particular section of the classification put forward by him. This part of the Ramsey classification basically coincides with the schemes mentioned above.
Thus, there are many classifications put forward not only by American toponymists. A common drawback of classification schemes is, according to E.M. Murzaev, “the impossibility of putting all the diversity of millions of geographical names into the Procrustean bed of one or another classification. In the chronological aspect, any toponymic system is both archaic and modern. In chorological terms, it is unique and reveals similarities, since the main starting points for the nomination of geographical objects turn out to be the same or very close all over the world. According to the above classifications, any toponym can be characterized, at least, by the type of object it denotes and from the point of view of morphological structure. Sharing the opinion that it is hardly possible to create a unified classification for all geographical names of any territory, we consider it appropriate to conduct a study of American toponyms in two directions. Namely, using his own classification in order to identify European roots in the toponymy of the United States, and, including elements of the classification proposed by A.V. Superanskaya.
CHAPTER 2. ANALYSIS OF US TOPONYMS
2.1 Various linguistic sources of toponyms
The toponymy of the United States, which is an English-language naming system, began to take shape less than four centuries ago. Developing in very special conditions (linguistic, historical, geographical), radically different from those that contributed to the formation of the naming system in England, American toponymy reflects the features of American English. In the territory, which at the end of the XVI century. the British began to colonize, numerous Indian tribes lived with their own naming system. In addition, in America there were colonies not only of England, but also of other European states - France, Spain, Holland, immigrants from Scotland, Ireland, Norway, Germany, etc. lived on the territory of the country. In addition to the languages of the Indian group, the main interfering languages include Spanish, Dutch, and French.
It should also be noted that the process of borrowing in American toponymy both in the 18th and especially in the 19th century went in the general direction of intensive replenishment of American vocabulary through borrowings from Spanish, German and other European languages. However, due to the fact that the English-language toponymy of America had firmly acquired a dominant position by this time, this impact was not particularly significant.
The Dutch influence was not as extensive and deep as the Spanish, but nevertheless it is palpable in the toponymy of the northeastern United States. On modern map This area retains a number of Dutch geographical terms. So, in the toponymy of the states of New York and New Jersey, the element -kill (kil - Dutch river bed) has been preserved. At the initial stage of the formation of the toponymy of the area, kill was widely used along with creek, stream and other water terms in the meanings of "stream", "river bed". The term has been preserved in America, mainly in the names of water bodies and small settlements: Fishkill, Peekskill, Catskill Creek. In areas of former Dutch settlements, there are often names with a component - hook (from the Danish bend of the river), which are almost completely absent in other territories - Sandy Hook, Red Hook, Kinderhook. Under the influence of Goll. kloor (cleft, gorge, abyss) in the northeastern United States, the clove component (Amer. rocky cliff, gorge) has become widespread: Stony Clove, Clove Valley, Kaaterskill Clove.
Borrowed French toponyms are observed primarily in the territory of Louisiana, which by the end of the 17th century. covered the Mississippi River basin, as well as lands on the border with Canada. In addition, in territories where the French have never lived compactly, numerous names with the belle (French beautiful) component arose. French names also underwent significant phonetic adaptation. Currently, they are pronounced in accordance with the norms of American English. It should be noted the widespread borrowed from the French ville (French city). The word mont (French mountain) also receives the status of a toponymic formant in the system of American names. So, about 70 blocks of the oldest part of New Orleans still bear the names of the Bourbon kings and members of their families.
One of the many groups of American place names is borrowed from Spanish. Its influence on the development of the toponymy of the entire southwestern United States was felt for almost three centuries and in some cases continues to operate at the present time. Basically, the names arose during the period of Spanish expeditions (the expeditions of Christopher Columbus, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo), the purpose of which was to expand the colonial possessions. Breaking down Spanish toponymic borrowings in chronological order, the following subgroups can be obtained:
a) names that arose during the period of the first Spanish expeditions along the coast of North America;
b) names associated with the emergence and activities of Catholic missions (mission period) (1769-1817) and further Spanish colonization of North America - the formation of land estates (Land grants) (1775-1846). However, none of the names have survived to this day, since the lack of coordination between expeditions and errors in mapping often led to the fact that many objects had to be “discovered” a second time and re-assigned names to them.
2.2 Compounding
“In those languages where word formation is available, it is a powerful means of replenishing the vocabulary and improving the grammatical structure of the language” (Vasilevskaya, 1962). Compounding is closely related to other methods of word formation and reflects the specifics of the language, since, along with some features common to many languages, it has national features characteristic of a given language, making up one of the differences between one language and another. More I.I. Sreznevsky noted that "in the composition of words and in the formation of expressions, the most, most diversely, the creative power of each language is expressed." Moreover, if in the 60-70s. 20th century word formation was inferior to affixation, in the 80s it surpassed affixation and amounted to 29.5% of the entire corpus of neologisms. In the substandard lexicon of American English, word formation ranks second among word-formation techniques. A.V. Superanskaya, comparing complex toponyms in Russian with the corresponding constructions of common nouns, notes that in both cases “a single category of compound words is characterized by the presence of two or more root morphemes and the unity of grammatical design (solid form). Further, the author rightly emphasizes the difference in the lexical meaning of root morphemes in proper names and in common nouns and proposes to consider root morphemes in proper names as full-valued or semantic only with a certain reservation. “In common nouns, the derivational construction contains only the generalized semantics of the created word. In proper names, where the semantics tends to zero, the word-formation construction is limited only by the possible relations between certain stems in the language. This implies an important conclusion that in the derivational analysis of complex toponyms, the basis for isolating morphemes is the synchronous correlation of single-structural words.
2.3 Semi-suffix -wood
In American toponymy, along with a significant layer of names-transfers to -wood from England (Brentwood, Ingle-wood, Kenwood, etc.), there are a number of new formations in which the -wood element appears in combination with proper names (Greenwood, Rockwood , Wrightwood), common nouns (Elderwood, Glenwood, Westwood, Maywood) and adjectives (Wildwood, Richwood, Highwood).
The special, boundary position of semi-suffixes between derivatives and complex toponyms is also due to the fact that in a number of names these elements continue to retain their original meaning, linking the named object with the landscape surrounding it. So, wood means “forest, thicket, grove” and in the name of the city Edgewood (California) it appears in its original meaning, characterizing the city in terms of its location: it is located on the border of the forest along the river valley (at the edge of the wood).
In the names Maywood, Westwood, the -wood component is used as a formal toponymic element, in which the semantics of the original appellative is completely erased and which, in its meaning, approaches the unspecified meaning of “place”, usually expressed by a toponymic suffix.
The semi-suffix -wood became widespread during the formation of urban suburbs in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. So, only in the state of New Jersey we find Englewood, Glenwood, Lakewood, Ledgewood, Maplewood, Wildwood, High-wood, Richwood, Ridgewood, Ringwood, Westwood, Cliffwood.
2.4 Formant–dale
Along with wood, -dale, “small valley” is most often used in the names of small resort towns, vacation spots, suburbs, which later developed into independent administrative units, forming combinations with the stems of specific nouns: Oakdale, Cloverdale, Carbondale, Riverdale, Ferndale, Saltdale , Springdale, Glendale, Oildale, Pinedale, Palmdale, Brookdale, Rosedale. In the names Jacksondale, Helendale, Allendale, Ellisdale, Huffdale, the first component is expressed by a proper name. Sometimes a proper name is in the possessive case: Bardsdale (surname Bard + s + dale). In the names Green-dale, Bloomingdale, Pleasantdale, the first component is expressed by an adjective.
-vale (poet, "valley") is used to form the names of places of recreation, small towns, tourist towns. Forms names in combination with adjectives: Richvale, Longvale, Sunnyvale.
-field (“field”, “plain”; “cleared space”; usually opposed to -wood) forms the names of settlements from specific nouns and adjectives: Springfield, Parkfield, Mayfield, Greenfield, Fairfield, Bayfield, Hay-field, Deerfield. The first component can also be expressed in the pure form of a proper name (Kentfield, Litchfield) or in the possessive case (Bakersfield).
-side (“place near, at ...”) forms the names of settlements from specific nouns: Lakeside, Ocean-side, Riverside, Seaside, Springside, Surfside, Woodside.
Close in its original meaning to the -field element is -land ("earth"), which forms oikonyms from appellatives: Pearland, Fruitland, Groveland, Oakland, Grapeland, Woodland, Wheatland, Summerland.
The semi-suffix -ford ("ford, naturally or artificially created", "shoal") was extremely active in the formation of the names of ancient England. Denoting originally "ford", this word later became part of the names of settlements located near it, and is considered one of the most common and most ancient elements in the names of settlements in England. In American place names, -ford forms names from proper nouns (Lockerford), common nouns (Waterford), and adjectives (Stonyford).
2.5 Formant –mead
Mead (Old English "meadow") forms names from adjectives (Fairmead, Sunnymead) and proper names (Nashmead).
It should be noted that formations on -ford and -mead arose in America, mainly in early period, in the years of the direct influence of English toponymy, in the regions of the northeast.
So, in Connecticut, for every 23 names, there is one formation in -ford. In Nebraska, the ratio changes dramatically, with one -ford name for every 200 names.
It should be noted that there is a certain relationship between the semantics of these words as units of the language and their position of semi-affixes in the composition of oikonyms. In complex toponyms, finite elements often contain an indication of signs of objective reality (Clearlake), i.e. to some extent are limiting and concretizing factors.
The formants -field, -land, -ford, etc. make this connection in a more general way, as a result of which the semantics of appellatives is erased. Their meaning is close to that unspecified indication of "place", which is expressed by toponymic suffixes.
In the words place, land, side, field (when they are included in toponyms), there is almost no detail in relation to geographical realities (they designate any piece of land).
Obviously, the word ford, already at the time of borrowing from the metropolis, was perceived as a toponymic formant (at the level of historical development when the toponymy of the United States was created, the ford, as a means of communication, could not have the decisive significance that it had in the period of the formation of the toponymy of England).
Desemantization of language units when entering names and their formalization is a universal toponymic process. “The presence of a connection between the semantics of the word and the features of the defined object determines its structural freedom. At the same time, the name as a whole gravitates towards a free phrase. The absence or low severity of this connection determines the greater degree of connectedness of the toponymic element and, accordingly, its functioning as a suffix or semi-affix” (Belenkaya, 1977).
2.6 Formation of derivative toponyms
According to Cannon (1986), affixal units make up 24% of all neoplasms in modern English and are slightly inferior to compound words. This method prevails in the creation of neologisms, and is also the leading among the word-building types of non-standard vocabulary. However, its predominance is noted precisely in the American version.
There is a point of view according to which derivative names are not typical for US toponymy and represent “the least developed word-formation group” (Belenkaya, 1977: 124). This provision is based on the fact that the analysis of the US map creates a misleading picture of the distribution of derived names, while in reality “most American names ending in the toponymic suffixes -ton, -ham, -ley, etc., are names transferred in the finished sight from England, not educated locally". Further V.D. Belenkaya claims that the method of suffixal formation of oikonyms was used in American toponymy mainly in the early period and only "in the northern regions of the country." For the toponymy of the West, this method of forming new names is not typical (Belenkaya, 1977: 124-125).
Let us consider in more detail the group of American toponymic suffixes and the models by which they form the names of settlements. Among them we include the suffixes -ville, -ton, -burg, -town, -polis, -ia, -city.
2.7 Suffix –ville
One of the most common American toponymic suffixes is -ville. In English, there is a loanword from French ville, vile (< из старо французского vile, vyllo,
ville - «ферма; загородная усадьба, деревня;
группа деревень вокруг городского поселения»).
Активность словообразовательной модели
на -ville проявляется прежде всего в том,
что она охватывает значительную часть
ойконимии США и встречается повсеместно.
Так, в Калифорнии ойконимы на -ville составляют
5,6% от числа всех названий населенных
пунктов, в Западной Виргинии - 6,2%, в штате
Мэн - 4,5%. -ville образует новые ойконимы
в основном по нетранспо-нирующей модели
N + Suf = PN, где в качестве производящей основы
могут выступать:
a) Proper names (the most common use of surnames): Jacksonville, Sutterville, Spencerville, Castroville, Carriville, Camptonville, Bestville, Prattville, Watsonville, Yorkville, Kelseyville, Glennville, McKinleyville, Monroeville, Collinville, Hendersonville, Grahamville, Russelville, Fayetteville , Simpsonville, Bentonville, Smithville, McMinnville. Cecilville, Mariville, Victorville, Aliceville, Susanville use personal names.
b) Appellatives in the singular: Graniteville, Surnmitville, Branchville, Cottageville, Geyserville, Cedarville, Oakville, Millville, Lakeville, Bridgeville, Collegeville, Woodville, Spring-ville, Centerville, Goldville, Mountville, Ferryville, Pineville, Timberville, Doeville, Churchville Ridgeville, Meadville; plural appellatives: Gladesville, Maidsville. Sistersville, Farmersville, Tradesville, Friendsville, Mechanicsville use personal names.
The high productivity of -ville is confirmed by its ability to join bases of a different linguistic origin, in particular, to Spanish ones: Altaville, Mesaville, Oroville, Almaville (ucn. alta "high", mesa "plateau", oro "gold", alma "soul") ; French: Belleville (belle "beautiful, beautiful"). In a number of names in -ville, formed from proper names, the connecting element s is preserved - a residual sign of the possessive case: Hydesville (surname Hyde + s + ville); Marysville (name Mary + s + ville); Taylorsville (last name Taylor + s + ville); Bownsville, Leesville, Janesville, Craigsville, Clarksville, Charlottesville, McGaheysville. However, the -s element is sometimes omitted, as we see in the name Parkersville (1870) - Parkerville (1892) (Kansas).
Oikonyms in -ville are also formed according to the transposing model A + Suf = PN, but this model has never been productive and is relatively rare in US oikonymy: Reedyville, Sandyville, Frenchville, Upperville.
The massive penetration of the suffix -ville into American toponymy dates back to the period after the Revolutionary War 1775-1783, although in some cases the suffix was used earlier: for example, Charlottesville (Virginia), was founded in 1762. In 1764 on On the map, the transfer names Granville (Massachusetts) and Abbeville (South Carolina) appeared. In 1780, this suffix formed the name of the city of Louisville, in 1781 - the name of Danville (Dan is short for Daniel), in 1790 - Hopkinsville and in 1802 - Lincolnville (both in New England).
The suffix -ville became widespread in Pennsylvania, where it was used to form names from the most unexpected stems: Trumbaursville, Kleinville, Schwenkville, Applebacks-ville, and others. . Thus, in Indiana, there are more than a hundred post office names formed with -ville (Stewart, 1945:196). And in subsequent years, models in -ville remain among the most active in both American toponymy and neighboring Canada. Between 1856 and 1917, for example, 58 -ville names arose in Canada: Pattenville, Banville, Atkinsville, Birkville (Rosen, 1973). The Place Names Index of the small state of Maryland includes a "disproportionately" large number of -ville names: 146 (Kenny, 1970: 141).
At the same time, the -ville suffix in its original meaning continues to be widely used to create slang nicknames for settlements and their areas: Derbyville (“city of derby”) and Sluggerville (“city of good baseball players”) - the nickname of the city of Louisville (Kentucky), famous for its horse racing and professional baseball; Stirville (from stir "jail") is the nickname of the city of Ossining, where the famous Sing Sing prison is located; Storyville is an old nickname for the New Orleans area, the birthplace of American jazz; Highbrowville - Boston "arrogant city, city of scientists" (from highbrow - "intellectual, scientist").
The suffix -ville often functions as a "secondary jargon": "being added to the base of slangism that has fallen out of favor or out of use, it contributes to its modernization and prolongation of life in American slang" (Schweitzer, 1983: 180): from square "traditional, unfashionable " formed squaresville, from corny "beaten, tired" -cornyville.
2.8 Suffix -ton
The suffix -ton is one of the few English toponymic suffixes that continues to function at the present time in America. The modern formant -ton developed from Old English -tun, which in its original form means "enclosed space" or "enclosed space with building". In its further semantic development, it passes into a "group of buildings" and, finally, into a "settlement" (Smith, 1956).
Names beginning with -ton are common throughout the United States. The suffix -ton forms the names of settlements according to the non-transposing model N + Suf = PN, where the proper name is most often used as a deriving basis: Buellton, Crafton, Denverton, Hammonton, Hurleton, Irvington, Lawiston, Powellton, Templeton, Waddington, Williamston , Baileyton, Elizabethton, Denniston, Warrenton, Calverton, Ellenton, Edgerton, Charleston, -ton also combines with the stems of some inanimate nouns, both concrete and abstract: Isleton, Limeton, Dayton, Elkton, Appleton, Blufrton, Summerton, Middleton, Tiverton, Riverton, Hopeton, Coalton, Peachton.
The transposing model A + Suf = PN, according to which -ton forms names from the stems of adjectives and participles, is rare: Loyalton, Royalton, Bloomington, Farmington, Graton (gra is a graphic rendering of the pronunciation of the word gray "gray").
In the period after the war of independence of the English colonies, -ton begins to displace the -town names. In South Carolina in 1783, Charles Town officially becomes Charlestown, then Charleston. J. Stewart suggests that the name of any city in -ton along the east coast of the United States once ended in -town (Stewart, 1945: 196).
2.9 Suffix –burg
Webster's Dictionary defines a burg as "a small town with self-government; village" (Webster, 1960). These oikonyms transferred to America by the English colonists served as one of the sources for the formation of the names of American cities in -burg.
However, one cannot ignore the influence of other ethnic groups of colonists in the eastern United States on the emergence of names with -burg. So, the Swedish settlers founded Elfsborg, the French - Louisbourg. Middle-burg was a Dutch settlement on Long Island. As a result of the emergence of a large number of immigrants from Germany in Pennsylvania, more than 150 names of cities in this state contain -burg or -berg, which, as a rule, were combined with a proper name: Harrisburg, Hubbursburg, Steinsburg.
Williamsburg (1699) is considered the first American city whose name was formed by the suffix -burg. An act of 1705 in Virginia officially approved the suffix -burgh for the formation of names of settlements, which also played a role in its distribution. Before the Revolutionary War, the use of -burg as part of oikonyms was noted in general only in the region of the northeast of America (Virginia, New England, Massachusetts). After the revolution, it spread further in toponymy, penetrating into colloquial speech: What burg do you come from? The suffix -burg forms oikonyms from nominal stems expressed either by proper names or common nouns: Win-tersburg, Jamesburg, Vineburg, Kingsburg, Quartzburg, Randsburg, Plainsburg, Cederburg, Stateburg, Orangeburg, Middleburg, Kelton-burg, Harrisburg, Rustburg, Scottsburg , Harrisonburg.
In the oikonymy of a number of states, the transposition pattern A + Suf (burg) = PN is noted: Richburg, Spartanburg, Spanishburg. False formations on -burg should be distinguished. Thus, the name Blocks-burg (California) was formed not with the help of the suffix -burg, but as a result of the truncation of the final -er in the surname Blocksburger, from which the name originated.
2.10 Suffix –ia
The suffix -ia, typical for American oikonymy, forms the names of settlements according to two models: N + Suf = PN and A + Suf = PN, the first of which is non-transposing, i.e. the derivative and generating parts of speech coincide in it. The second model is transposing, there is a discrepancy between the generating and derived parts of speech. Within the N + Suf = PN model, two subtypes are distinguished:
1) model N + -ia = PN, where N -
a) proper personal name (Monrovia from the surname Monroe, Andersonia from the surname Anderson, Gormania from Gorman, Kendalia from Kendall, Walteria from Walters);
b) geographical name (Bostonia from Boston, Amasonia from Amason (River);
2) the model N + -ia = PN forms the names of settlements from the bases of common nouns: Petrolia (a popular name in the US Southwest) from petrol, Vandalia from vandal, Venturia from venture. The transposing model A + -ia = PN forms oikonyms from the stems of adjectives: Centralia from central, -ia, although not a leading one among oikonym-forming suffixes, has become widespread in the USA. The presence in the toponymy of the country of a large number of borrowed names of settlements in -ia (Caledonia, Macedonia, Arcadia, Peoria, Pennsylvania, Columbia) contributed to the isolation of the suffix -ia and its transformation into a separate derivational morpheme used to create new oikonyms.
The widespread distribution of Spanish names in -a (Alhambra, Ramona, Fontana) in the western and southwestern United States also led to the isolation of the suffix -a, which acts in this region of the United States in the same function as the suffix -ia discussed above, forming new oikonyms according to the N + a = PN model (Lemona, Gardena, Tarzana, Carbona).
2.11 Suffix –polis
The suffix -polis (-opolis) (Greek, "city"), isolated as a result of the initial truncation of borrowed Greek words necropolis, metropolis, megalopolis, etc., is also very productive in American oikonymy.
OH. Smith does not give any data on the participation of the formant -polis (-opolis) in the formation of geographical names An
etc.................
Nicknames - toponyms are interesting from the point of view of the national and cultural specifics of their meaning: they arose, as a rule, as a result of a metonymic or metaphorical rethinking of the designations of any events, traditions, phenomena historically associated with a particular place. The most common metaphor is the key to understanding the foundations of thinking and the processes of creating a national-specific vision of the world, reflecting fundamental cultural values.
The toponymy of the United States is characterized by an abundance of nicknames for states, cities, and the names of their inhabitants. According to S. Ulmann, there is a law of synonymous attraction, according to which objects that attract public attention have more synonyms for their designation. This means that a popular object has many names because, as a result of frequent use, its only or one of the few names begins to develop other, additional meanings and becomes, on the one hand, inaccurate, and on the other, not very expressive. To eliminate both, new names are created that claim to be expressive and accurate in expression, but due to parallel development, they begin to acquire the same secondary or figurative meanings, which again stimulates the emergence of new words.
Nicknames - toponyms of these states are completely legalized names, i.e. are used not only in oral speech, but also found in various reference books, dictionaries, not to mention their wide distribution in fiction. Therefore, this kind of names can be attributed to variants of toponyms, both in terms of the functions of the meaning of the names, and in terms of their emotional and social load. Perform the direct function of a toponym, i.e. serve as an exact addressee, nicknames - toponyms cannot, however, they perform a descriptive function much wider than toponyms proper. Along with official, sometimes even legislatively approved nicknames, each state has, as a rule, several more names that reflect the originality of its geographical and natural environment and history, features of life and customs.
Names - nicknames of American states have different motivations for their classification: the history of the object, its spatial, ethnographic and evaluative characteristics, functional purpose, color, size, shape.
1) States whose classification is based on historical events and facts that play an important political role:
The First State - "the first state" is the state of Delaware. During the Revolutionary War, Delaware was the first to ratify the US Constitution, which became the basis for the nickname.
The Equality State - "the state of equality" - the state of Wyoming. Was the first state to enfranchise women in 1869.
The Constitution State - "state of the constitution" - the state of Connecticut, where for the first time in 1639. among the North American colonies, the so-called "Fundamental Orders" were adopted, which served as the basis for the US constitution.
The Volunteer State is the official nickname for the state of Tennessee, which arose during the war with Mexico in 1847, when 30,000 volunteers responded to the call of Governor Brown to raise three regiments (about 3,000 people). This pseudo-patriotic nickname has a chauvinistic connotation.
The Mother of Statesmen, the Mother of Presidents - "the birthplace of statesmen" or "the birthplace of presidents." These are now obsolete place names for the state of Virginia, based on the fact that after the Revolutionary War, the first three US presidents were from Virginia.
The Political bellwether - "political barometer". So they say about the state of New Hampshire, which begins the preliminary voting program for possible presidential candidates.
The Mother of Southwestern Statesmen - "the birthplace of statesmen, immigrants from the state of the Southwest" - is an outdated nickname for the state of Tennessee, which is of an advertising nature.
2) States associated with historical figures:
The Land of Roger Williams - "the land of Roger Williams". In 1636, a colony was founded on the site of the modern state of Rhode Island by priest Roger Williams after his expulsion due to disagreements with the leaders of the Massachusetts colony, who did not allow any deviation from Puritan dogmas.
The Land of William Penn - "the country of William Penn", the head of the Quaker community that founded the state of Pennsylvania.
The Land of Lincoln - "Lincoln's country". The people of Illinois, where Abraham Lincoln began his political career, proudly call their state "Lincoln Country."
The Hawkeye State is the Hawkeye State. This is the official nickname of the state of Iowa and its inhabitants (Hawkeyes) after the name of the Indian chief Hawkeye - "hawkeye".
The Bullion State - "the state of the golden scroll." One of the nicknames of the state of Missouri is associated with the name of Senator Benton, who stubbornly defended the need to save only silver and gold coins, for which he received the nickname Bullion.
Seward "s Folly, Seward" s Icebox - "Seward's fad", "Seward's refrigerator".
Derogatory nickname for Alaska, bought from Russia in 1867. At the initiative of Secretary of State G. Seward.
3) Nicknames-place names of the states, reflecting the mores and customs of their inhabitants:
The Blue Law State, the Land of Steady Habits - "a state of puritan laws", "a land of firm rules". Nicknames for the state of Connecticut, which was distinguished by the special strictness of its Puritan laws, which prohibited any work or entertainment on Sundays.
The Baked Been State - "the state of baked beans." The nickname of the state of Massachusetts and its inhabitants (Bean Eaters), who, in accordance with strict rules, did not have the right to cook food on Sunday and were content with baked beans left over from Saturday.
The Corn-cracker State - "the state of corn huskers." A derogatory nickname for poor whites in Kentucky and other mountainous areas of the southern states.
The Cracker State - "state of the white poor". A derogatory nickname for the state of Georgia and its people. Americanism cracker, formed from the English cracker in its old meaning "bouncer", "liar" was first used in relation to vagabonds and outcasts, and then to the poor whites of the southern states.
The Tarheel State - "the land of black heels." A playful nickname for the state of North Carolina. It originated as a derogatory nickname during the Civil War, when a brigade of North Carolinians could not hold their position and fled. The Mississippians, who were on the defensive next to Rome, ridiculed the unfortunate warriors, explaining their flight by the fact that the North Carolinians forgot that day, as usual, to grease their heels with pitch.
The Nutmeg State is the Nutmeg State. A playful nickname for Connecticut and its inhabitants (Nutmeg Yankees), who were so adept at making and selling all sorts of household items to the side that they made nutmegs from wood and sold them as real ones.
The Hoosier State - "state-lousy." Nickname of the state of Indiana.
4) Nicknames-toponyms of the states associated with the national composition of the population:
The Creol State - "Creole state". This is jokingly said about the state of Louisiana, whose population is mainly Creoles of French and Spanish origin.
The Spanish State - "Spanish state". The nickname of the state of New Mexico, which retains traces of Spanish influence and a significant percentage of Hispanic population.
The Apache State - "Apache State". A playful nickname for the state of Arizona, where the Apache Indian tribe used to live.
The Sioux State - "the state of the Sioux tribe." The unofficial name of the state of North Dakota, on whose territory the Dakota Indians lived, who spoke the Hoka Sioux language.
5) State nicknames related to crops:
The Peach State - "peach state". The state of Georgia is the top peach producer in the United States.
The Corn State - "corn state". Nickname of the state of Illinois, one of the most important states of the "corn belt".
Famous Potatoes - "famous potatoes". Idaho potatoes are famous throughout the country.
The Sunflower State - "the state of sunflowers." The official nickname of the state of Kansas, the sunflower is the state's official flower.
The Rice State - "rice state". One of the nicknames of the state of South Carolina, where rice is the most important crop.
The Peanut State - "peanut state". Georgia ranks first in the country in terms of peanut production. Hence the nickname of its inhabitants - Goober-grabbers - "peanut diggers".
The Cotton State - "cotton state". Alabama is located in the center of the cotton belt of the southern United States, hence another obsolete version of its nickname - the Cotton Plantation State - "the cotton plantation state".
6) State nicknames associated with hydronyms:
The Bay State - "the state by the bay." The state of Massachusetts is located along the coast of the bay of the same name.
The Child of the Mississippi River - "child of the Mississippi River". The state of Louisiana is located in the Mississippi Delta on alluvial land. The nickname is stylistically somewhat sublime.
The Lake State - "lake state". This name perfectly describes the state of Michigan, which is almost completely surrounded by four of the five Great Lakes: Superior, Michigan, Huron and Erie.
The Blackwater State - "state of black water." This is sometimes called the state of Nebraska because of the dark color of the streams and rivers flowing through its territory.
The Hot Waters State - "the state of hot springs." The state of Arkansas got its nickname because of the hot springs in the area of the city of Hot Springs (Hot Springs), where the national park of the same name is located.
The Mother of Rivers - "mother of rivers". All major New England rivers originate in the mountains of New Hampshire.
7) Nicknames-toponyms, reflecting the features of the geographical environment:
The Border State - "border state". The state of Maine, located in the far northeast of New England, borders Canada.
The Peninsula State - "Peninsular State". The state of Florida occupies the peninsula of the same name.
The Crossroads of America - "America's Crossroads". Nickname of the state of Indiana.
The Great Central State - "the great central state." The nickname of the state of North Dakota, which is located in the center of the wheat belt.
Down Where the South Begins - "where the south begins." Since Virginia is the southernmost of the Mid-Atlantic states, radio commentators loftily refer to it as "Where the South Begins."
The Old North State - "the old northern state." The state of North Carolina arose as a result of the division of Carolina into two states: northern and southern.
The Panhandle State - "panhandle state". The state of West Virginia is shaped like a frying pan with a handle.
The Heart of Dixie - "heart of Dixie", "heart of the old south" - this is the state of Alabama. The word Dixie in the United States refers to the southern former slave states. The word came into common use during the Civil War (1861-1865) as the name of a Southern war song, then came to be used to refer to anything related to the southern states.
The Keystone of the South Atlantic Seaboard - "the keystone of the South Atlantic coast." The grandiloquent solemn name of the state of South Carolina. It resembles a triangle in shape, resting on the Appalachian mountains with its tip, and its base is the coast. Atlantic Ocean. (keystone - a triangular stone that is placed in the center of the arch).
8) Nicknames-toponyms of the states, reflecting their size and role in the economic life of the country:
The Great Land - "great land". Alaska is the largest state of America in terms of area (1518.18 thousand square kilometers), but it ranks last in terms of population.
The Jumbo State - "a huge state." Texas was the largest state in terms of area before the admission of Alaska to the United States.
The Empire State - "imperial state". New York has recently fallen behind California in terms of population, but for a long time it remained the largest state in terms of population and value of manufactured products.
Little Rhody - "little Rhody". This is an affectionate nickname for the smallest state - Rhode Island.
The Diamond State - "diamond state". The state of Delaware got this nickname because, being very small in size, it plays an important role in the US economy.
Uncle Sam's Attic - "Uncle Sam's attic." This is a derogatory nickname for Alaska, which is regarded as the backyard of the United States.
Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/
Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/
State budgetary educational institution higher vocational education Moscow city
"Moscow City Pedagogical University" (GOU VPO MGPU)
University of the Foreign languages
Department of English Philology
Course work
On the topic: "Modern connotations of British place names"
Completed by: 2nd year student, gr. 202L
Direction: Linguistics
A.O. Shlyakhova
Checked by: Assoc. V.V. Alpatov
Introduction
1. Toponyms as a linguistic phenomenon
2. Classification of toponyms
3. Toponyms of Great Britain
4. Analysis of modern connotations of British toponyms
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Human life is closely connected with various places, which are designated with the help of special words - geographical names, or toponyms (from the Greek word topos "place" and "onoma/onyma" name, name).
The study of geographical names, the identification of their originality, the history of occurrence and the analysis of the original meaning of the words from which they are formed, is carried out by toponymy - one of the branches of linguistics, or linguistics.
We can say with confidence that it is difficult to imagine the modern world without geographical names. Each toponym carries a variety of information: geographical, linguistic, historical, since geographical names are the result of the historical conditions of the eras when they arose, formed and spread in certain countries.
Such Russian linguists as A. V. Superanskaya, V. I. Dal, L. V. Uspensky dealt with the problems of toponymy. A great contribution to the study of English toponyms was made by the Swedish linguist E. Ekvol, the English linguist R. Coates. Also, toponyms were studied by such linguists as A. Smith, G. Steward, V. Watson, O. Padel, etc.
Relevance of the topic my work is due to the fact that the study of the modern meanings of British toponyms not only helps to gain a deeper knowledge of the language and historical and investigative connections in it, but also to broaden my horizons in the field of British geography and British toponyms.
The purpose of this work is to consider and analyze the modern connotations of British toponyms, as well as to trace which names of geographical objects in Great Britain are often found in Russian.
The first chapter of this work will provide theoretical material on the science of toponymy in general, the types of toponyms and the features of British toponyms.
The second chapter of this work is devoted to British toponyms and the analysis of their modern connotations.
1. Toponyms as a linguistic phenomenon
As you know, the section of linguistics that studies proper names of all types, the patterns of their development and functioning is called onomastics. First of all, it is considered a linguistic science. At the same time, in order to identify the specifics of the named objects and the traditions associated with their names, it is necessary to consider the historical, geographical, cultural, sociological and literary components. In any geographic name, there is or was present a specific content, which in some cases is lost. The naming process is a process of folk art, which has its own national and linguistic characteristics.
Within the framework of onomastics, a separate science can be distinguished - toponymy. According to the linguistic dictionary edited by V.N. Yartseva defines it as follows: toponymy(from Greek, firpt - place and onkhmb - name, name) - a section of onomastics that studies geographical names (toponyms), their functioning, meaning and origin, structure, distribution area, development and change over time. The totality of toponyms in any territory constitutes its toponymy. http://tapemark.narod.ru/les/515b.html
Toponymy explores proper names denoting the names of geographical objects, their origin, development, current state, spelling and pronunciation. The set of toponyms of a particular area is called toponymy.
A toponym is usually understood as the name of a geographical object - a proper name. However, knowing the definition of a toponym is not enough to analyze toponyms, so it is necessary to consider their typological classifications.
2. Toponym classification
In modern linguistics, there are two classifications of toponyms:
1) by type of designated geographical objects;
2) by structure.
According to the first classification, the following types of toponyms are distinguished: hydronyms, oronyms, oikonyms, urbanonyms, macrotoponyms, microtoponyms. English toponyms are given as examples in this classification.
hydronyms are the names of water bodies (rivers, lakes, seas, bays, straits, canals, etc.) and have a very high linguo-historical value, because the names of water bodies have been preserved for centuries and millennia and undergo little change. Distinguish pelagonims- names of the seas ( the North Sea, the Irish Sea), limnonyms -- names of lakes, ponds ( Loch Tummel, Loch Ney, Llyn Cerrig Bach), potamonyms -- river names ( Severn, Thames, Great Ouse), gelonyms- proper names of swamps, wetlands ( Lindow Moss).
The next type is oronyms(from the Greek. oros - mountain) denote the names of the mountains ( the Grampians, Pennines). http://yaneuch.ru/cat_03/anglijskie-toponymy/15083.823566.page1.html
The names of settlements are allocated to another group, which is called oikonyms(from the Greek Oikos - dwelling, dwelling. These include villages ( Cuxton, Buttsole, Five oak Green) and cities ( crayford, Earlswood, Great Torrington)
Urbanonyms(from lat. urbanus - urban), denoting the names of intra-urban objects are divided into several types: godonyms(from the Greek hodos - path, road, street, channel) - street names ( Baker street, lime street, Whitehall), agaboutronyms(from the Greek agora - square) - the names of the squares (Trafalgar Square, Piccadilly Circus) and dromonims(from Greek dromos - running, movement, path) - names of communication routes (Fosses way, Icknield way, Broxden round about)
Macrotoponyms(gr. macros are proper names denoting the names of large geographical objects. First of all, these are the names of countries or a historical region, province (France, Germany, Russia). Macrotoponyms usually correlate with ethnonyms (Bulgarians- Bulgaria, Saxons -- Saxony. The name of the country can be formed from the ethnonym (Franks- france, Greeks- Greece), and vice versa, the ethnonym can be derived from the name of the country (America- americans, Australia --Australians).
To the names of small uninhabited objects, or microtoponyms(from Greek micros - small), include physical-geographical or intra-urban (meadows, fields, groves, streets, lands, tracts, hayfields, pastures, swamps, cutting areas, burned areas, pastures, wells, springs, pools, rapids, etc.). e) objects. Usually they are known only to a limited circle of people living in a certain area. http://yaneuch.ru/cat_03/anglijskie-toponymy/15083.823566.page1.html
According to the structural (morphological) classification, toponyms are divided into 4 types: a) simple, b) derivatives, c) complex, d) compound.
"Quantity simple toponyms significantly inferior to the number of complex and compound, and their etymologization is largely impossible, because many names are passed from other languages and are perceived as a pure basis. Simple non-derivative names consist only of the root word without any auxiliary formants: Comb, Barrow, Down, Stall, Moor, etc.
More common derivatives toponyms. They are formed by attaching a morphological affix to the root: Stanton, Kingston, Birmingham, Scarborough, etc.
The third type is complex toponyms. They consist of two morphemes that act as the basis of the toponym: Blackpool, Brentside, Wallingwells, Whitbarrow etc.
Composite toponyms are a phrase consisting of two or more parts of speech: Cold Harbor, Standing Stone, Barton under Needwood, Black Notley, etc.» http://ua.coolreferat.com
3. Place names of Great Britain
Toponyms form their own specific system on the territory of any district or region. The toponymy of any territory is multilingual and multi-temporal. “But, nevertheless, this is not a conglomerate of heterogeneous names, but an organized and ordered system, the elements of which are interconnected. By territorial toponymy we mean an ordered set of units (toponyms) with social function differentiation and identification of geographical objects of any historically and geographically limited territory. Each system, being formed, absorbs multilingual previous toponyms" [Vorobyova, 1992: 34]
The geographical names of the British Isles are fairly well studied. These islands are a territory with clearly defined natural boundaries. The names that have developed in the UK have become widespread in other countries where they speak English. [Artemova, 2010: 61]
“A few words about the name of the country itself and some of the counties. Great Britain - an island in Europe and a state on it. Based on the names of the ethnonym of the people Britts, inhabiting the island at the turn of the new era. The ethnonym is believed to have meant "colorful", for the custom of painting clothes and body. Great Britain“Little Britain” (lat. Britannia minor) was opposed, the current Brittany (fr. Bretagne) is a peninsula in northwestern France.
Most of the names of English counties contain the element -shire (county): Shropshire, Oxfordshire, Yorkshire, lincolnshire, Lancashire, Cambrigeshire; however, there are exceptions: Devon, Sussex, Wessex, Norfolk, Essex, Kent, Tyne and Wear, humberside, Gwent, Merseyside".[Artemova, Leonovich 2010:61]
The official language of Great Britain is English, but the geographical names of this country are only partially English. Among them, several toponymic backgrounds can be distinguished, one of them is Celtic. There are many Celtic elements among the names of natural objects (rivers, hills) and less in the names of settlements. A large number of Celtic names are preserved in the western regions of England proper (Cheshire, Devonshire, Worcestershire, etc.). Names of two English counties -- Devon and Kent- originate from the ancient tribes of the Britons Dumonii and Cantii. [Artemova, 2010: 61]
Most English rivers bear Celtic names: Avon, Don, Exe, Ax, Esc, Usk, Thames, Derwent, severn, Dee, Aire, humber etc . Some English cities have Celtic names: Dover, Reculver.
The Latin influence on English place names is very slight. The result of the 400-year Roman occupation of the British Isles is the emergence of a kind of Latin-Celtic complexes: London from Londinium, Catterick from cataractonium, Lincoln from Lindum colonia, Manchester from Mancunium. It should be noted the popularity of the component chester/- caster(from lat. castra- “camp”) in the names of those settlements that were located on the site of the former Roman fortifications of cities: Chichester, Winchester, Doncaster, Lancaster, Chester, Colchester, Silchester.
A noticeable trace in the toponymy of the British Isles was left by the Scandinavian conquerors (IX-X centuries). However, their influence is felt throughout the country, and in a certain northeastern region known as Danelaw (lit. `Danish law'). ”): barnby, Grimsby, Hellaby, Thoresby, Ashby, Selby, frisby, Westby etc. The element -thorp (“farm, secondary settlement”) is found everywhere in the same area: Londonthorp, carthrope, Ullesthrope, Kettlethrope. The “holm” component is used to denote areas of land near water, small islands: Heightolme, Bromholm, Oxenholme, Tuphoholme. The element -thwaite is widely used (eng. Dial. -`a piece of land, clearing, fenced grazing area, wasteland suitable for cultivation "). The area of \u200b\u200bits most intensive distribution is the northwest ( Thwaite, Braithwaite, Fairthwaite, Greenthwaite, Honeythwaite).
The Norman Conquest, despite its enormous socio-cultural influence, did not lead to the emergence of an extensive French toponymic layer in England. French borrowings in place names are mostly limited to the adjectives Beau- or Bel- “beautiful”: beauvale, beaumanor, Bellasize, Beaulieu, Belvoir, Belleau. Direct borrowings of French names are rare: Richmond, Grosmond, Plessey. Other borrowings are single and not systematic.
One of the distinguishing features of the toponymy of England is that the components of names rarely correspond to modern level with real English vocabulary. English toponyms developed by the 16th-17th centuries and in their bulk fix and reflect the most ancient states of the language. The modern toponymy of England is the result of centuries of development of names. [Artemova, 2010: 64]
linguistic toponym British connotation
4 . Analysis of modern connotations of British toponyms, what kindRussian citizens have associations
Avon -- a county and a river in England, which among Russian citizens, for example, among the female half of the population, is associated with the brand of a cosmetic company Avon or Avon Products, which in turn was based in New York, USA.
Baker street -- best known in connection with Arthur Conan Doyle's famous character private detective Sherlock Holmes. According to the author's intention, the great detective lived on Baker Street, in house 221B, which in reality does not exist. Accordingly, this street is associated with Sherlock Holmes.
Belgravia - in Russia, this is how elite cottage towns, complexes are often called, so that people associate such places with the Westminster area in London, which is famous for its expensive real estate.
Baxter Lane -- street in the UK. The very word "baxter" associated with a number of English surnames, but now, having heard this word, modern youth will think of none other than Chuck Baxter, the character of the series "Gossip Girl".
Birmingham is a city in England. Associated with the industry Birmingham- industrial city. The electronic, food, metallurgical, machine-building industries are developed in it.
Blackpool -- county of London, but fans of the series may associate this British place name with the series of the same name "Blackpool" with David Morrissey leading role.
Bloomsbury - the traditional center of the intellectual life of London. Associated with the place of residence of writers and artists, as well as a publishing house « Bloomsbury» .
Brighton - a city on the south coast in England in the county of East Sussex, on the shores of the English Channel. Usually associated with a place of rest and resort.
Bristol is a city in England. For Moscow residents, it can be associated with a prestigious cottage village in the Moscow region, in which houses are built in the English style.
Cambridge a city in the east of England. But first of all, it is the famous University of Cambridge - the University of Cambridge is one of the oldest and most prestigious universities in the world.
Chelsea - the historical district of London, earlier - its suburbs. But even for people who are not fond of football, this name is associated primarily with the English football club Chelsea.
Ches h ire -- historical and ceremonial county in the west of England. For people not versed in geographical names, at the mention of " chesire» immediately comes to mind chesire cat» or " Cheshire Cat"- a constantly smiling cat, the character of Lewis Carroll's book "Alice in Wonderland".
Chester is a city in the county of Cheshire. Associated with a network of shoe stores « CHESTER» (chester), this brand was created in the UK. For snack lovers "Chester" is the name of the cartoon cheetah, symbolic of and associated with the Cheetos brand of crisps, and famous for its phrase "Chester loves Cheetos".
Chesterfield - a city (administrative district) in the UK, in the county of Derbyshire. Most often, this geographical name is associated with a brand of cigarettes. « Chesterfield» manufactured by Philip Morris International. Although Chesterfield is historically a British toponym, this stamp is named after a county in the state of Virginia, USA. Also for football fans Chesterfield» is, first of all, an English football club from the city of the same name.
Devon a county and a river in England. Residents of Russia have associations with the word "Devonian" may be different, for example: for fishermen, Devon is an artificial bait for catching predatory fish, a type of spinner; for football lovers "Devonian"- this is a Russian football club from Almetyevsk, as well as a club from Oktyabrsky; for fans of fantasy novels "Devonian"- this is a repellent from the Strugatsky brothers' novel "Predatory things of the century", which, in combination with other components, has a narcotic effect.
Derby -- city in England. Associated with a variety of men's shoes " Derby", so named in honor of the invention of the Earl of Derby, and also the "derby" is the main prize in the racing race trials of horses at the hippodrome.
Douglas is a suburb in County Cork, Ireland. Associated with the name of actor Michael Douglas and a chain of perfume stores « Douglas»
Greenwich - "sea gate" of London. Name "Greenwich" usually associated with the prime meridian.
Flint is a city in Flintshire, North Wales, UK. This toponym is associated with a rock band founded by Keith Flint, vocalist and dancer « The Prodigy» . Furthermore, "Flint" may be associated with the names of such people as: Keith Flint - vocalist and dancer in the group « The Prodigy»; Larry Flynt-- American publisher CEO Larry Flynt Publications; Miles Flint- company president Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications.
Hamilton -- a city in Scotland, as well as a brand of Swiss watches.
Kent a county in England. Most often « Kent» - associated with the brand of American cigarettes.
Lancaster -- capital city of the English county of Lancashire. AT modern world associated with the line of the same name cosmetics « Lancaster».
Limerick -- a city in the county of the same name in Ireland. Most often associated with a form of short humorous poem that appeared in the UK.
Lincoln is a city in the county of Lincolnshire or Lindsay, England. Same, "Lincoln"-- a common English proper name, occurring both as a surname or name, and as a toponym at the present time, hearing the word "Lincoln" it is unlikely that a person will think of a city in England or the city of the same name in the USA, rather Abraham Lincoln or about the brand of cars - "Lincoln".
matlock - a city in England, the administrative center of the non-metropolitan county of Derbyshire. "Matlock"- is associated with the English bass player Glen Matlock.
Notting Hill -- area in London. In 1999, a film of the same name was released. "Notting Hill" starring Julia Roberts and Hugh Grant, now, toponym " Notting Hill» associated with this film.
Oxford is a city in England. "Oxford" associated with the famous old university in England, as well as the type of fabric that was traditionally used for sewing shirts.
Piccadilly -- street in London, as well as the area. Usually associated with the meeting point in London for those who are lost, or with the meeting place in London in general.
Pimlico is a small area in central London. For movie lovers, this is an association with the film « Passin Pimlico" (« Passport to Pimlico»)
Preston is a city in England. This toponym is associated with the surname of American actress Kelly Preston and American musician Billy Preston.
Richmond is a city in England. Although this toponym is a direct borrowing from French, we usually associate it with a brand of cigarettes and a brand of clothing.
soho - shopping and entertainment district in London. For Russian citizens, it may be associated with some prestigious place of entertainment, for example, with a nightclub in Moscow « soho Rooms» , as well as with a network of shoe accessories stores « SOHO».
Southamton is a port city in the county of Hampshire, England. But for football lovers, this is a football club.
Sterling ( Stirling ) - a unitary area in the central part of Scotland. As well as Sterling L2- English submachine gun of the Second World War.
Tottenham -- area of London. Those who are somehow connected with football, first of all, I will associate this name with a football club « Tottenham Hotspur».
Wimbl e don suburb of London. But for most people, it's still a tennis tournament, but for lovers of romantic comedies, it's a movie. "Wimbledon" released in 2004 in the USA.
Wo r cester is a city in England. Most often associated with the British TV series "Jeeves and Wooster" also with sauce Worcester or "Worcester sauce" for meat dishes.
York is a city in England. Usually "Yorks" is abbreviated to the breed of dogs. "Yorkshire Terrier".
So, after conducting this analysis of modern connotations, we can say that there are whole groups of toponyms that are often associated with the heroes of television series, books, films or the names of the series themselves ( Baxter, Worcester, Blackpool, Baker Street etc.); with football teams and clubs ( Tottenham, Southampton, Devon, Chesterfield, etc.); with various brands and companies (Avon, Lancaster, Chester, Richmondandetc.). And also there are isolated cases of associations ( Wimbledon is a tournament, Bloomsbury is a place where writers and artists live,Limerick - a form of short versification).
Analysisseveralmodern connotations of British place names(associations that arise among the British)
Baker street -- based on the analysis above, we found that the Russians Baker street this is nothing but the house of Sherlock Holmes, but if we consider the first part of the toponym ` Baker", then the British have a number of other associations, and, oddly enough, completely unrelated to the original meaning of the word ` baker-- baker, now it is a fairly common surname in the UK and its carriers are not necessarily engaged in the baking business, for example Baker Publishing group http://bakerpublishinggroup.com/ - a large publishing house, Baker interiors http://www.bakerfurniture.com/baker/index.jsp - luxury furniture manufacturer, Thomas Stewart "Tom" Baker-- "The English actor is best known for his role as the Fourth Doctor in the science fiction television series Doctor Who from 1974 to 1981." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Essex a county in the east of England. With this area, the British associate the concept of ` Essex Man" is a stereotype of the average Essex man with a family and necessarily a middle class car, who certainly voted for Margaret Thatcher in the elections. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex_man There is also the term `Essex Girl"-- originating in the 1980s and 1990s, which describes a pretty but goofy girl from Essex. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex_girl
Worcester -- in addition to the famous Worcestershire sauce http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcestershire_sauce , the British associate this toponym with the stereotype ` Worcester Woman"-- this is not a "Worcester woman", both men and women fall under this concept. This term, used by politicians in the United Kingdom, describes the typical voter who, as an office clerk, votes for the party that promises more "goods", ` Worcester Woman" -- a person who cares about and cares about the quality of life. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester_woman
The Island of jersey is the largest island in the Channel Islands group. The island is famous for its crops. jersey Royal Potato, but probably primarily associated with the homeland toffee -- sticky iris paste and jersey wonders or mirvelles- Snacks made from sweet fried dough. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jersey Also jersey associated with the resort island with its expensive hotels. http://www.resortsandlodges.com/vacation-packages/usa/new-jersey/index.html
The Orkneys or The Orkney Islands are islands north of Scotland, Russian citizens do not associate with this toponym, but the British associate the name of this geographical object with nothing more than Orkney knitwear design http://www.judithglue. com/pages/orkney-knitwear-- a style of knitting and weaving that is very popular among the British. Many celebrities specifically order things made in the famous Orkish style there.
Balmoral - the British associate with Balmoral Castle, the residence of the Queen in Scotland. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balmoral_Castle
Conclusion
Toponyms are of interest not only for linguistics, but also for history, geography, culture, therefore toponymy has a long history of research and the presence of a significant number of works devoted to the study of toponyms. Despite this, there are still many problems that make it difficult to interpret toponyms, controversial issues related to determining the sources of toponyms and requiring closer attention not only from linguists, but also historians.
We, for our part, tried to analyze what British toponyms are now associated with. In the course of writing this work, it was possible to find out that there are many different associations, both directly related to geographical names, and indirectly, that sometimes the association even overshadows the original meaning, in such cases it is not the toponym itself that comes to mind, but its modern connotation, for example as with the surname Lincoln.
Also in conclusion, it should be noted that toponymy, as a branch of linguistics, is a very interesting object of study, since through toponyms one can see and study the whole histories of various peoples and ongoing changes in the language. Toponymy is an integral part of any language.
Bibliography
1. Artemova A.F., Leonovich O.A. Geographical names of Great Britain // Foreign languages at school. -- No. 5. - 2010.-- S. 60 - 67.
2. Belenkaya V.D. Essays on English toponymy / V.D. Belenkaya. - M., 1977. - 226 p.
3. Nikonov V.A. Introduction to toponymy / V.A. Nikonov. - M.: Nauka, 1965. - 177 p.
4. Superanskaya A.V. What is toponymy? / A.V. Superanskaya. - M.: Nauka, 1984.-- 182 p.
5. Yartseva V.N. Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary (LES) / Ch. ed. V.N. Yartseva - M., 1990.
6. Ekwall E. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-names. - Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974.
7. Cameron K. English Place-Names. -- Lnd.: Dent, 1961; 1977 - 205 p.
Hosted on Allbest.ru
Similar Documents
toponym properties. Classification of stylistically marked toponyms. Characteristics of toponymic units. quality toponyms. quantitative toponyms. Toponyms as means of stylistics. Analysis of the use of toponyms in artistic speech.
course work, added 08.10.2006
Toponymy as a branch of onomastics, its place in the system of sciences. Historical and geographical features of New York state toponyms. Oikonyms, urbanonyms and hydronyms of the State of New York. Introduction of a linguo-cultural component in the process of teaching a foreign language.
thesis, added 07/26/2017
Toponyms as proper names denoting the name (identifier) of a geographical object, their classification and types. Patterns of their conjugation, directions of research on this issue. Forms of use of toponyms in the first occurrence.
essay, added 04/22/2016
term paper, added 10/15/2014
The role and place of toponyms in the language system on the example of the USA. Main essence structural and etymological features of California oikonyms. Conducting a study of the method of word formation of oronyms. Characteristics of hydronyms with Spanish origin.
thesis, added 08/06/2017
Basic concepts of toponymy and ways of forming geographical names. Productivity study various ways word formation. Productivity of methods of word formation of toponyms in the toponymy of the regions of the United States and the country as a whole.
term paper, added 07/05/2013
general characteristics youth jargon and its features. The main sections of onomastics: toponymy, astronomy, anthroponymy, etc. Astionims, godonyms and dromonims in youth jargon. Classification of toponyms according to the reality / unreality of the denotation.
thesis, added 07/17/2017
Study of the etymological originality of toponymy. The study of the patterns of functioning of toponyms in the language, their lexical-semantic structure and word-formation structure. The study of the features of place names in the American language.
term paper, added 10/30/2015
Examples of names of animals and birds by proper and common nouns. The role of toponyms (place names) in the formation of animal names. The relationship of geographical names with the names of various minerals. Features of the names of celestial bodies.
abstract, added 04/02/2010
The concept of linguistic memory, its reflection in culture. Development of linguoculturology as a science. Toponyms in the history of language. Features of the names of geographical objects, their significance for the Slavic peoples in different periods of settlement. The origin of the names of rivers and lakes.
