English journalism of the 19th century in brief. English press of the 19th century: main development trends, leading publicists

38. general characteristics English journalism of the first half of the 19th century. Main representatives.
The first half of the 19th century was distinguished in England by the rapid development of capitalist production. The agrarian revolution is nearing completion. Agriculture, light industry, and trade are developing rapidly. The massive introduction of machines into production leads to a reduction in manual labor, an increase in unemployment, a reduction in wages and, as a result, an increase in crime. A protest against machines is spreading among workers. In 1832, Carpenter's Monthly Political Journal expressed the views of advanced workers and wrote that the culprits should be sought not among machines, but in the methods of their use. On the question of the influence of machines on the situation of workers, the newspaper said that this opens up the possibility of improving labor, productivity, and reducing the working day. “Chartist Circular” (since 1848), “Northern Star” - against the mutilation of cars. The official body of the Edinburgh Review is categorically against it and calls on the government to be merciless in dealing with such crimes.
In the first place is the Northern Star, in the second is the People's Newspaper, its program: in order to preserve the Chartist party and express the broad popular movement, it has become vitally necessary to organize the publication of a weekly truly democratic Chartist printed organ. Ideological orientation and thematic content: one of the main tasks is to propagate the ideas of the revolution; much attention is paid to highlighting the issue of colonial policy in England. It was supposed to be published as a private body. The newspaper could not be an official organ, because the Chartist party was illegal. It was intended to publish the newspaper with funds from workers and other parties to the Chartist movement. Volume of one issue - 12 pages, price 3.5 pence, circulation 5 thousand. Editor Jones. The editorial is published in each issue on the first page in the current notes section. Various issues are touched upon (foreign and domestic policies, the Chartist movement, the struggle of colonial peoples, the struggle of the proletariat). The most notable are the foreign section and our colonies. K. Marx had a great influence. The Rhenish Gazette was considered a model.
In addition to the Chartist press: conservative, liberal, opposition, radical, religious, labor, professional, stock exchange and others. Frequency: daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, annually, mornings, afternoons, evenings.
Dickens. 1833-35 - sketches of the life of various layers of the philistinism, interspersed with humor and jokes. Cartoonist style. At first I published articles without signatures. Newspaper "Mirror of Parliament", "Morning Chronicle". The essays were published when he was 21 years old. The Evening Chronicle meets the family of the editor of Coach Stop. Since 1836 - editor of the "Almanac" and stops working at the "Morning Chronicle" newspaper "Examiner". In 1842, he published letters in which he tried to achieve international copyright in America, and “American Notes” appeared. Articles about agriculture, satirical articles. Since 1850 - the weekly “Home Reading”. Condemns the vices of society, but spares the feelings of readers. He publishes his works in his magazines “David Copperfield”, “Hard Times”. 1859 - magazine " All year round", leaves it to his eldest son.
William Thackeray (1811-1863), Cambridge University. Thackeray's journalistic debut took place during his years of study at Cambridge: he wrote for handwritten student magazines “Snob” and “Chimera”. His brushes also include 2000 drawings: illustrations for literary works, political cartoons, grotesques. The article “Pictures of Life and Manners (Hood John Leach)”, 1854, gives an idea of ​​the nature of the English illustrative press, of popular cartoonists working in periodicals. The article is an example of Thackeray's artistic criticism. Area of ​​interest: politics, republican views. He is not a supporter of revolutionary methods of social reconstruction; he pinned his hopes on parliamentary methods of struggle. In 1833 - co-editor and foreign correspondent of the newspaper National Standed (National Banner). In the 1830s. marks the beginning of Thackeray's active journalistic activity. He contributed to the newspapers The Times, The Morning Chronicle, the Quarterly Review, Frazer's Magazine, and Punch. Thackray is a journalist who works in the genres of parody, essay, satirical note, article, and wrote texts for drawings.
In “Paris Letters” (1833) observations on various phenomena of French life: he ridicules the absurdity of the names of Parisian newspapers. The notes are ironic: a mockery of French morals and tastes. In the essay “How a Spectacle was Made of an Execution” (1840), he opposes the public death penalty, viewing it as legalized murder, incompatible with Christian values. Democratic sympathies. The article “Fashionable Writer” (1841) - the first in a series against novels, idealizes life high society. He ridiculed the narrative techniques of their authors. Thackeray places the main blame for the spread of second-rate literature on flattering and corrupt journalists who created a name for mediocre writers.
Article "Dickens in France" (1842). The first part of the article - Thackeray's review of the dramatization of Dickens's novel The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby - is a stinging rebuke. Exposes ignorance, cynicism, moral turpitude and hypocrisy of critics. The article is caustic and witty. A brilliant satirist and polemicist.
The skill of a parodist: “The Rhine Legend” (1845), “Novels of a Famous Writer” (1847), “Miss Tickletoby’s Lectures on the History of England” (1842) and the book “The History of the Next French Revolution” (1844). The pinnacle of mastery is “The Book of Snobs” (1846-1847), in which the writer created a satirical portrait gallery of snobs, representing various layers and institutions of English society (aristocracy, bourgeoisie, political, literary and military circles, church, university, press, etc. .d.).
From 1860 to 1862 - editor of the Cornhill Magazine. The writer attracted many famous writers: A. Tennyson, G. Beecher Stowe, E. Trollope, E. Gaskell, M. Arnold. The magazine is a great success.

English journalism in the first half of the 19th century. Chartism Press.

Topic 4. The development of English journalism in the 19th century.

1. English journalism in the first half of the 19th century. Chartism Press.

2. English journalism in the second half of the 19th century.

3. Typology of the English press.

a) High-quality newspapers.

b) “New journalism” and mass newspapers.

4. Reuters Agency.

Great Britain was one of the leading European powers in the 19th century. Political and economic development Great Britain was quite stable. Unlike France, Germany and many other countries of continental Europe, there were no revolutions or social upheavals. Moreover, revolutionaries, publicists and politicians who were in conflict with the authorities in their countries usually emigrated to England. So, for example, in 1848. the French king Louis Philippe, overthrown by the revolution, arrived here; here in 1898-1899. Emile Zola lived, fleeing the unjust oppression of the authorities due to the Dreyfus affair. C. Mars and F. Engels, exiled from Germany, lived and died in England; in London, Russian emigrant Alexander Ivanovich Herzen (1812-1870) opened in 1853 ᴦ. Free Russian printing house, where he published the newspaper “Bell” and the almanac “Polar Star”.

From 1837 to 1901, the Queen of Great Britain was Victoria II (1819-1901). Under her, the monarchy finally lost the functions of the executive branch and acquired a symbolic, ceremonial character. 64 years of reign of the strong and powerful Queen Victoria strengthened stability in the country and its authority in the international arena. A consequence of the industrial revolution was the rapid growth of the middle class, whose tastes and interests were largely oriented by the British press.

The English periodical press helped strengthen national unity and harmony and smooth out social contradictions. She has consistently acted as a defender of the interests of Great Britain and its citizens. English journalism, represented by its most prominent representatives, demonstrated examples of objectivity and excellent information. “The Queen of the English Press,” the London newspaper The Times, set the tone not only in English, but also in European journalism. Perhaps in no other country has the press enjoyed such respect and had such a huge influence on the life of society as in Great Britain.

A significant phenomenon in English journalism in the first half of the 19th century was the Chartist press. The Chartist press is an exponent of the ideas of Chartism (from the English “charter” - charter) - the first mass, politically formed movement of workers in Great Britain in the 1830-1850s. The Chartists' demands were formulated in their program called the People's Charter (1838). Οʜᴎ consisted of the introduction of universal suffrage for men, a reduction in the working day, secret voting, the abolition of the property qualification for candidates, and the annual re-election of the House of Commons. The Chartists were convinced that agitation for the charter and the implementation of its provisions would make it possible to eliminate social injustice through parliamentary means and improve the lot of workers.

The Chartists actively used the press in their struggle. The main newspaper of the Chartist movement was the weekly "North Star". It was founded on May 26, 1838. in the city of Yorkshire, one of the leaders of Chartism, orator and publicist Fergus Edward O'Connor(1796-1855). The newspaper had a network of its own correspondents in major European capitals. The peak of the Northern Star's popularity came in 1848, when exclusive materials from France, Germany, and Austria, which were engulfed in the revolutionary movement, regularly appeared on its pages. In those months, the newspaper's circulation reached a record figure of 50 thousand copies.

By the mid-19th century, Chartist publications were also popular: the newspaper "People's newspaper", magazine "Worker". They were edited by a prominent chartist, politician and publicist Ernst Charles Jones(1819-1869). He saw the historical roots of Chartism in the New Testament and considered Jesus Christ to be the first Chartist. Jones was well acquainted with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marx's political articles were repeatedly published in Narodnaya Gazeta. The magazine “Truzhenik” published on its pages the “Manifesto of the Communist Party” written by Marx and Engels.

The Chartist press carried out propaganda work during the parliamentary elections, calling for votes for workers' candidates. She talked about the growth of unemployment and need among factory workers, about strikes and demonstrations. She called on workers to sign petitions in defense of their comrades brought to trial for participating in uprisings and strikes, and responded to the labor movement abroad. The main genres of Chartist journalism were appeals, speeches, political reviews, open letters to politicians and newspaper publishers, essays, and literary reviews.

The Chartist crisis of the late 1840s led to a decline in the popularity of Chartist newspapers and magazines. So, in December 1851, the Northern Star's circulation dropped to 1,200 copies, and O'Connor sold the newspaper in 1852. It was soon closed.

By the early 1820s, the number of periodicals in England had tripled since 1781. Their total circulation doubled over the same period. At the same time, the circulation of London newspapers in the first half of the century was small - 5-6 thousand copies. London newspapers received half their income from advertisements. The readership of the press in England in the first half of the 19th century was narrower than, for example, in France or the USA, since British periodicals were very expensive. The reason for the high cost was numerous and high taxes (stamp duty, paper tax, tax on advertisements).

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The 19th century was the heyday of Great Britain. Here the first steam engine was created and the first rails for railway transport were laid, the first subway lines were built in London, steamships and fast steam locomotives appeared, and high bridges made of iron structures were erected. But at the same time, the socio-political situation in the UK is also worsening.

The growth and movement of people from the provinces to the cities changed the political and economic balance of the country. By this time, the state of the English economy was quite satisfactory, but in the social sphere the situation remained bleak: low wages for workers and the constant threat of unemployment did not contribute to the improvement of living conditions.

During the 1830s and 1840s, a labor movement called Chartism grew in Britain. The legal press has been replaced by an illegal press, which is therefore cheaper in cost. The main newspaper of the Chartist movement was the weekly The Northern Star. It was founded by one of the leaders of Chartism, orator and publicist Fergus Edward O'Connor. The newspaper had a network of its own correspondents in the main European capitals. In 1848, exclusive materials from France, Germany, and Austria, covered by the revolutionary movement, regularly appeared on its pages. Such Chartist publications such as People's Paper and The Labourer magazine. They were edited by the eminent chartist, politician and publicist Ernest Charles Jones. He was well acquainted with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. People's Paper repeatedly published Marx's political articles, and The Laborer magazine published the Manifesto of the Communist Party written by Marx and Engels.

Publications of that time, having experienced capitalization, gradually became large publishing enterprises. The publication of the newspaper was the result of the combined work of a team of employees, where each was responsible for their own area of ​​work. In addition to the editor-in-chief, heads of various departments, reporters ready to go to the scene at any time to cover current news, literary staff who prepared materials sent by news agencies for publication, and artists who prepared illustrations were hired on a permanent basis. Since the attention of publications intended for a mass audience was focused on the topics of crime, scandalous chronicles and professional sports, crime, court and sports reporters appeared in the editorial offices.

Large publishing houses were dealt a strong blow by the appearance of the so-called halfpenny sheets at the end of the 19th century. Not only were they very cheap (hence the name), their content was such as to maximum emotionally excite a simple audience greedy for sensations. The tone of the articles was primitive and vulgar, the topic did not rise above scandals, intrigues and unverified information. William Stead is considered the creator of this type of publication in England, and his model is his evening London newspaper “The Pall Mall Gazette”, first published on February 7, 1865.

With an immense number of titles in the UK newspaper media space, magazines have received no less widespread development here. Let's name the three most popular of them.

"The Gentleman's Magazine" [The Gentleman's Magazine] - a monthly magazine created by Edward Cave, contained news and commentary on any topic - from commodity prices to Latin poetry, to attract educated readers. Cave first began to use the English word "magazine" ( warehouse) meaning “magazine.” “The Gentleman's Magazine” [The Gentleman's Magazine] was the first specialized magazine to cover a wide range of topics.

Among the numerous humorous magazines, the first place belongs to Punch, founded on the initiative of William Thackeray. Witty articles, cartoons and the absence of offensive attacks attracted the attention of the intelligentsia. Punch became popular within a year of its foundation, being read from the middle classes to the Royal Household.

The Economist was founded by British entrepreneur and banker James Wilson. The magazine publishes articles on the elementary principles of political economy, supporting free trade, analyzes the state and prospects of the market, and reports foreign news from the world of trade. It was the first publication that sought to present complex material in an accessible form for educated non-specialists.

Among the outstanding English publicists of the 19th century are Charles Dickens, William Thackeray and Oscar Wilde.

From the age of twelve, Charles Dickens tried himself in the field in which he would later make a professional career: he wrote crime chronicles, reports, and was a parliamentary reporter. Under the pseudonym "Boz" he wrote a number of stories and essays about London types, published in such famous publications as Monthly Magazine, Bell's Weekly Magazine, The Morning Chronicle, The Evening Chronicle. Many of the essays - in fact, essays written in the lively and simple language spoken on the streets of London by the common people and middle classes whose lives he directly observed.Dickens recorded many of the same situations and themes that would later appear in his novels.

The success of Boz's Sketches brought Dickens to the attention of Edward Chapman and William Hall, famous booksellers and periodical publishers. They suggested that Dickens write a number of things in the spirit of Boz's Sketches to accompany Robert Seymour's illustrations. This is how the Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club appeared.

Subsequently, in the magazines "Bentley's Miscellany" [Bentley's Almanac], "Master Humphrey's Clock" [Mr. Humphrey's Watch], he published journalistic novels reflecting the social situation of Great Britain in those years.

In American Notes for General Distribution, which appeared after a trip to the United States in 1842, Dickens conducts insightful journalistic studies of American institutions, comparing them with their English counterparts: his attention is given to hospitals, factories, and prisons. Civic feeling and social temperament were organically inherent in Dickens. And all his journalism is imbued with a lively interest in what was the subject of greatest importance for his contemporary society. In the last years of his life, he fights for the rights of women who found themselves on the panel due to the brutal socio-political conditions of nascent capitalism.

William Thackeray is well known as a satirist. Even during his student trip to Europe in 1833, he served as a foreign correspondent for his stepfather's The National Standard magazine and The Constitutional newspaper. After returning to England, journalism became his real profession. Fifteen years of work in journalism were a serious school of literary excellence for the writer. It is no coincidence that the narrative in his novels “The History of Pendennis” (1850) and “The Newcomes” (1855) is connected with the world of journalism, and main character“The Adventures of Philip” (1862) - Philip Ferning is a newspaperman specializing in foreign correspondence.

From the very beginning of his literary career, Thackeray uses a special technique - speaking on behalf of a fictional hero-mask: in the Paris Literary Gazette and in Frazer's Magazine he is published under the pseudonyms "One of Them ", Wagstaff ("August the Joker"), "Charles Yellowplash" ("Charles Yellowplush") and "Michelangelo Titmarsh" ("Michelangelo Swamp Tit"). All his masks as intermediaries between the author and the reader embody the instability of the periodical press, help to satirically depict her claims to authority All Thackeray's characters are amateurs, the kind who write for newspapers and magazines, as they say, “for the soul.”

One of the most important trends in Thackeray’s journalistic work in the late 1830s and early 1840s was his awareness of the phenomenon of periodicals: print as a commodity and print as a historical document. In this regard, he has a question about the realism, veracity of this document and the author’s involvement in what he is writing about. Much of what he feels on an intuitive level is the impact of the media on the consciousness of the mass person, the media as the “fourth estate”, moral and professional traits The personality of the person who has this power will acquire real urgency only in the next 20th century.

Thackeray began collaborating with Punch from its very foundation, in 1841, and left it ten years later, in 1851. This magazine was, on the one hand, a publication typical of that time, on the other hand, a publication that began to exploit this typicality and laugh at it. It was conceived as a kind of parody of the newspapers and magazines that proliferated at that time, as a kind of distorting mirror in which the methods and techniques used in journalism are reflected upside down. Attention was paid not so much to the news as such, but to the methods and methods of presenting the material. The magazine's goal was to protect readers from unscrupulous journalists. Thackeray, already known as a scoffer, wrote parodies of journalistic reports and pamphlets that exposed the duplicity of politics. Among the latter, a special place is occupied by the pamphlets of the series “English snobs in the description of one of them.”

Oscar Wilde is a prominent representative of another trend in English journalism of the 19th century. Wilde entered journalism at the age of thirty. From 1884 he began publishing in The Pall Mall Gazette. He wrote many articles, notes, reports, reviews on theatrical performances, concerts, exhibitions, public lectures. His closeness to modern culture manifested itself in a persistent interest in the aesthetic aspects of everyday life and in applied art. A number of Wilde’s articles are devoted to the aesthetics of costume (“Woman’s dress”, “More on the radical ideas of costume reform”, “The relationship of costume to painting”), the art of book binding, illustrations and publication design (“Typography and typographers”, “The beauty of bookbinding” ), design (“The Proximity of Arts and Crafts”). Wilde's favorite genre as a journalist was the review, to which he gave the intonation of a free conversation. He often chose unimportant works for review, based on the principle of equivalence of material and topic.

In the essay “The Soul of Man under Socialism” - the only example of Wilde’s political essayism - we are presented with a characteristically Wildean vision of the most important social conflicts and ideological trends that determined the contradictory appearance of contemporary Britain. On the pages of this essay, born of the ideas of the Russian anarchist Peter Kropotkin, Wilde's deep feelings about the historical tragedy of Russia are clearly manifested. But bourgeois-democratic Britain, according to Wilde, does not compare favorably with the despotisms of other European powers. The tyranny of the Crowd is little better than the willfulness of monarchs; As for the British, they with rare consistency doomed their most talented artists to exile. Wilde had no doubt that government interference in the activities of artists should end.

Wilde the publicist does not even seek to document the described reality; he records instant changes in his perception, through images reproducing the impressions born in him at one point or another in time. This is why it is so difficult to determine the genre in which Wilde works.

The terrible living conditions in a convict prison again returned Oscar Wilde to socially oriented journalism. He addresses letters of protest to the Daily Chronicle newspaper, in which he speaks indignantly about the plight of young children in prison, about the immoral laws under which a child can be imprisoned.

Wilde's world is a world of subjective, original impressions, it is decorative, overly picturesque, but it is a world of thoughtful and even invented impressions that conflict with harsh reality. And Wilde is ready to fight the world of cruel abuse of the Beautiful, which is any person.

● French press of the 19th century: main development trends, leading publicists.

Bonaparte, declaring himself the first consul of France, issues the “Consular Decree on Newspapers.” Issued on January 17, 1800, it led to the closure of 60 of the 73 newspapers published in Paris, the Minister of Police was entrusted with the responsibility of ensuring that not a single new newspaper appeared in the territory of Paris and the Seine department, and the remaining “newspaper editors were of incorruptible morality and patriotism." What is surprising: there were no protests from the newspapermen.

Understanding very well the power of the press, Bonaparte said that “four hostile newspapers are more dangerous than a hundred thousand bayonets,” and this position of his largely explains the further development of the situation with periodicals in France.

Bonaparte's victorious wars in Switzerland and Italy led him to the idea of ​​declaring himself consul for life, and in 1804 the Senate proclaimed him Emperor of the French under the name of Napoleon.

The most notable phenomenon of the period of the Empire should be called the newspaper of Louis Francois Bertin “Journal des Débates” [Journal of Debates]. It is interesting, first of all, because of the introduction of new journalistic forms and genres, which later became part of the practice of all European journalism. We are talking about feuilleton. In 1800, Bertin began publishing additional sheets to his newspaper, where information that was not included in other sections was published. Subsequently, the term “feuilleton” was used in two meanings: literary material from the “basement” of the newspaper and literary work in additional parts of the publication.

On August 3, 1810, Napoleon signed a decree according to which only one newspaper could be published in each department (excluding the Seine department), which was to be under the authority of the local prefect, and at the end of the same 1810 a draft decree on Parisian newspapers was prepared. The decree prohibited newspapers from publishing political news and feuilletons. And the law of October 21, 1814 introduced preliminary censorship for all periodicals.

In France, guarantees of freedom of speech were achieved only after the events of July 1830, when power finally passed into the hands of the bourgeoisie, and a bourgeois monarchy was established in France.

Another important communication innovation of the 19th century was the emergence of news agencies. The world's first news agency appeared in 1835 in Paris. Its founder was Charles Louis Havas. To quickly obtain information at a time when railways were still an extremely slow means of communication, and the telegraph was just beginning to become part of newspaper and information practice, the Havas agency successfully used pigeon mail.

Technological innovations in the publishing process, in information technology and the introduction of primary education on a large scale in European countries stimulated the emergence of “mass”, inexpensive periodicals designed for the tastes of a poorly educated but large readership. The leader of the French cheap press was Emile de Girardin. The subscription price of his political newspaper La Presse [Print] was half that of all other similar publications. Girardin believed that “a newspaper is made not by editors, but by subscribers” - with a large number of subscribers, advertisements will be published in his newspaper, and the payment for them will cover the low subscription price. The first appearance of “hidden advertising” in European periodicals is also associated with the name of Girardin.

In the French "mass" press, a curious newspaper phenomenon was born - the "feuilleton novel." Its appearance is associated with the activities of Louis Veron, who was able to make his newspaper “Le Constitutionnel” [Constitutional] popular by offering the reader a novel with a sequel.

In parallel with the genre of the feuilleton novel, in French journalism of the 1830s – 1840s there was a flourishing of such a literary and journalistic genre as “physiology”. They were written in a pseudoscientific style, with the text divided into paragraphs and with the inclusion of various kinds of classifications, and usually accompanied by witty illustrations, on which the best artists of the time worked. Sometimes physiology could take the form of a satirical political pamphlet, such as “The Physiology of the Pear,” published in 1832, where the pear, with the help of the brilliant caricaturist Charles Philippon, meant the “King of the French” Louis Philippe. After the publication of this physiology, playing up the resemblance of the king’s face to a pear became “good form” among opposition-minded journalists.

Collaboration in the publications of Charles Philippon was the first glory of the publicist Honore de Balzac. Philippon's satirical illustrated magazines La Caricature and Le Charivari were at the forefront of press opposition to the July Monarchy. Balzac took an active part in the work of the weekly “La Caricature” [Caricature]; of his 216 essays, he wrote almost half as an employee of this magazine. He published there from 1830 to 1832, and, for example, the entire text of the first seven issues of this publication for 1830 belonged exclusively to him.

The merit of Philipon's publications was a unique attempt to combine the merits of an essay with the merits of a drawing. The picture not only accompanied the text, but could replace the text, fulfilling the same political task as an editorial or feuilleton.

The political and social essay was the most relevant genre for journalism of that time - due to its social orientation and artistic potential. Balzac reveals himself in it as a talented, major publicist, whose work can be interesting as a collegial product of journalistic cooperation, where both the text and the visual range are important.

Balzac wrote several witty works within the genre of physiology - “Physiology of the Bourgeois”, “Physiology of an Official”, “History and Physiology of Parisian Boulevards”, “Monograph on the Rentier”, “Monograph on the Parisian Press”.

“A Monograph on the Parisian Press” was written for the collective collection “La Grande City” [The Big City] of 1842 and constituted a kind of satirical gallery of types of journalists. In this pamphlet of physiology, Balzac compiles an exhaustive catalog of the characters of the newspaper and magazine world: a statesman, a scholar of nothing, a publicist with a briefcase, the author of one book, a young blond critic, a censer burner, etc.

The political, social and moralizing satire of the 1840s, which at that time achieved exceptional revealing power, had a great influence on Balzac. He retained the humorous parallels usual for physiological essays with scientific style. The clarity of the characteristics is facilitated by the writer’s brilliantly executed parodies of all kinds of publications in Parisian newspapers. Each chapter ends with an “axiom” – a brief satirical maxim that sums up the author's thoughts. Artists Honore Daumier, Adam, Amy decorated this pamphlet with sharp caricatures in which modern writers could easily recognize themselves.

Another prominent French publicist of the 1830s and 1840s was Gerard de Nerval. In his journalistic essays, Nerval was attracted not by the broad panorama of a significant historical event or transitional era, refracted through the fate of the average person, and not by a fascinating plot based on known historical facts and relationships, but mainly by an extraordinary and unique individuality, a person who did not want to submit to laws and norms and the ideas of his time and his environment. These are, for example, the heroes of his essay cycles “Illuminati” and “Journey to the East”. For more than two decades, Nerval regularly collaborates in many Parisian newspapers and magazines, publishing his reviews, articles, essays, stories, and essays there.

But the most prominent representative of French journalism of the 19th century was Emile Zola. The value and interest of Zola's literary critical articles lies in the fact that they examine the most important aspects of the historical, literary and artistic process of the entire 19th century and, in general, recreate one of the most interesting eras in the history of French literature. Articles about Balzac, Stendhal, Hugo, George Sand, Flaubert, Daude, Goncourt, Dumas, Gautier; a reasoned and systematic polemic with Sainte-Beuve, a major figure in French criticism; a subtle and accurate analysis of the system of the creator of the cultural-historical school in art history, Hippolyte Taine - all these works reveal the realistic concept that was born in the 19th century. Zola, as an outstanding critic, introduced scientific foundations into the assessment of new literary and artistic works in his journalistic works.

In 1871, Emile Zola found himself at the center of the events of the Paris Commune. As a correspondent for the newspaper “La Cloche” [The Bell], he goes to Bordeaux, then to Versailles, where the National Assembly moved from Paris occupied by German troops, writes and sends parliamentary reports to Paris: he is horrified by the unleashed “fratricidal war.”

On the initiative of Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev, whom Zola met in 1872 in Paris, Zola became a permanent Parisian correspondent "Bulletin of Europe". From 1875 to 1880, Zola published 64 materials in this Russian magazine - articles, essays, essays.

But Zola’s most striking speech was a series of articles devoted to the Dreyfus affair - trial, which began in December 1894, in the case of espionage in favor of the German Empire of an officer of the French General Staff, a Jew originally from Alsace (at that time the territory of Germany), Captain Alfred Dreyfus, demoted by a military court and sentenced to lifelong exile with the help of false documents and on the wave strong anti-Semitic sentiments in society. Having launched a campaign in defense of the innocently convicted, Zola declares: “I would like to elevate this dispute, turn it into a huge cause of humanity and justice.”

The culmination of the campaign was a letter from Emile Zola addressed to the President of France. Published on the front page of the newspaper "L" Aurore [Aurora] on January 13, 1898, it caused a loud resonance throughout the world. Accused of libel, Emile Zola was brought to trial, sentenced to a year in prison and fled to England. However, after his death President, the publicist's case was reviewed, Zola was able to return to France and achieve the release of Dreyfus.

This act was proof of the influence that the intellectual elite can have on those in power.

● Socio-political conditions and technical prerequisites for the emergence of the mass press in Europe and the USA.

In the first half of the 19th century, the population of what is now the United States of America was predominantly rural. It was the villagers who played the main role in the country's economy. But the development of capitalist relations required the emergence of people who were personally free in a double sense: free personally and free from property. America still had to cope with this task, but even then the cities were growing numerically due to the emergence of more and more new jobs in them. Developing capitalism needed not just a worker, but a person who could confidently handle the technology that was complex at that time. Hence a new requirement followed: literacy of the population.

In connection with the needs of industrial production in the United States, as well as in Western European countries, compulsory primary education was introduced, which helped to overcome mass illiteracy and create a workforce adapted to working conditions using machines.

Young people from Northern and Western Europe poured into the USA: from the British Isles, from Scandinavia, Germany, Italy, Poland, Russia, Austria-Hungary... Increased competition in the labor market and tightening working conditions caused mass unrest, a wave of strikes took place demanding an eight-hour worker days, trade unions appeared, uniting mainly skilled workers.

The US capitalist press moved to “new journalism” along with the consolidation of the volume and complication of the newspaper commercial business, the complication of the content of the newspaper and the isolation of management functions within the administrative management of the newspaper publication. Internal and external events in the United States at the turn of the new century required the press to develop new methods of ideological influence on readers.

A characteristic feature new methods of working with audiences was a change in the fundamental function of printed publications. The predominant place in the press now belonged not to the “viewspaper” (newspaper of views), but to the “newspaper” (newspaper). The newspaper's policy began to find expression not so much in editorial opinion as in the trends and methods of selecting and processing published facts.

The American press sought to increase its role as an ideological weapon, focusing on the growing interest among the middle class in what was happening in their country and beyond. In an effort to increase its political prestige in the eyes of the mass reader, the US press relied on the interests of the “common” person.

A breakthrough in the field of printing was the invention of the rotary printing press, made by the American Richard Howe in 1846. Now newspaper circulations have increased significantly, and the cost of producing one issue has become lower. This put newspapers in a tough struggle for their readers, which, in turn, affected the content of the newspaper. Now the newspaper was adapting even more to the needs of its audience, and this indicated the advent of a new era in journalism - an era in which the main emphasis was on the tastes of the mass reader.

Technical innovations of the late 19th century include the fact that since 1867, the raw materials for the production of newsprint have been fibers or wood waste, whereas previously paper was made from rags. This led to cheaper publications. A year earlier, the transatlantic telegraph cable was successfully laid, connecting America with Europe. In 1868, Christopher Scholes invented the typewriter, which changed the traditional understanding of the work of a journalist. In 1869, construction of the transcontinental railway was completed railway, connecting the coasts of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, and in 1876 Alexander Bell invented the telephone.

In the second half of the 19th century, newspapers increasingly became part of business rather than political struggle. In the context of the formation of national markets, the role of advertising as a means of promoting goods and services has increased significantly. The sharp growth of mass industrial production and increased market competition among manufacturing and trading firms stimulated the rapid growth of the advertising business in the second half of the 19th century. Print was increasingly viewed by advertisers as a channel for displaying advertisements to a mass audience of potential consumers of goods and services. The flow of advertisements entering the editorial offices of periodicals has increased sharply in the last quarter of the century. In just one decade, the volume of advertising published in US magazines has increased by 200–300%. Income from advertising activities of periodicals has also increased significantly. If in the 1880s the income of newspaper publishers consisted half of funds received from the sale of circulation, and half of fees for the publication of commercial advertisements, then by 1910 advertising income already accounted for 65% of total revenues.

● Features of the development of North American journalism at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries.

The emergence of daily and mass newspapers has created a new situation in the media market.

« The New The York Sun, a daily newspaper published since 1833, was designed as a serious, large-format news publication. New York journalist Benjamin Day acted as its founder and ideologist.

The cheapest not only in New York, but throughout the country, Benjamin Day's newspaper was designed for the urban population and the mass, basically illiterate reader. For the first time, it was published twice a day, and the morning edition was full of political polemics, and the evening edition, on the contrary, offered readers materials of a purely informational nature.

The New York Sun became especially famous in 1835 thanks to the so-called “great lunar hoax” - a series of six essays about the discovery of life and civilization on the Moon. This discovery was falsely attributed to John Herschel, one of the most famous astronomers of his time. In 1844, an equally famous “air swindle” was published - an article by Edgar Allan Poe about flying across the Atlantic in a hot air balloon.

On September 4, the United States celebrates an unofficial holiday - Paperboy Day. On this day in 1833, the editor of The New York Sun, Benjamin Day, hired the first peddler in US history, ten-year-old Irishman Barney Flaherty, for his publication. From that moment on, the boys became the main distributors of the press. They stood on street corners or rushed through neighborhoods, peddling newspapers with catchy headlines. Newspaper workers were not part of the editorial staff, but were free entrepreneurs and belonged to the poorest classes of society, often living right on the streets.

Another popular newspaper, the New York Herald, was created by James Gordon Bennett Sr. in 1835. In 1836, the New York Herald conducted the first investigative journalism in history: in parallel with the judicial investigative authorities, the newspaper's journalists step by step investigated the murder of twenty-three-year-old New York prostitute Helen Jewitt and regularly published relevant information in the newspaper. It soon became clear that the journalists managed to collect more information and facts than the investigation. At the trial, both the prosecutor and the lawyer appealed to materials from the New York Herald. As a result, the alleged killer of the prostitute was found completely innocent, as journalists established.

Not surprisingly, the newspaper soon became the most popular and profitable daily newspaper in the United States, and by 1861 its circulation reached 84,000 copies, allowing it to call itself "the most widely circulated newspaper in the world."

Bennett believed that the task of the newspaper was “not to teach, but to surprise.” His son, James Gordon Bennett Jr., who succeeded his father as editor in 1867, shared the same point of view. He financed Henry Morton Stanley's African expeditions and George De Long's expedition to the North Pole.

The New York Herald established a correspondent bureau for its newspaper in Washington, established permanent correspondents in Europe, and received European press materials using the invention of the telegraph. Bennett created a financial section in the newspaper, which he called the “money page,” a column of letters from readers with their opinions on the publications of the newspaper and the events it covered. He was the first to report in his newspaper about the discovery of gold mines in California. The New York Herald was rightfully considered the most aggressive and sensational among the leading New York newspapers.

The largest figure in American journalism at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries was William Randolph Hearst, whose name in many ways became a symbol of many negative aspects American capitalist press. He was confident that “the reader is interested primarily in events that contain elements of his own primitive nature<...>: 1) self-preservation, 2) love and reproduction, 3) vanity.” When choosing the subject of materials, there was no barrier of decency for him. At his instigation, the American press finally and irrevocably grew into a big business, becoming its important and integral part.

The “mass” press quickly mastered the techniques of illustrated publications, supplementing the sensationalism with appropriate video footage. In Germany, the first illustrated newspaper, the Leipziger lllustrierte Zeitung [Leipzig Illustrated Newspaper], appeared in 1843 in Leipzig. In the early 1870s, the first illustrated daily newspaper, Le Journal illustré [The Illustrated Magazine], appeared in France. But in England, the first daily illustrated newspaper, the Daily Graphic, appeared only in 1890.

The appearance of the first advertising agencies that established close contacts with the press dates back to the 1840s. Advertising is becoming one of the types economic activity, and the financial injection of advertising into magazine and newspaper products has led to the fact that advertising and the press have become interdependent.

In May 1848, representatives of six leading newspapers in New York, in order to reduce the cost of receiving news by telegraph, created a corporate association called the Associated Press of New York, and later simply the Associated Press. This is how the first American news agency emerged, benefiting financially from selling news to various media. mass media.

On April 12, 1861, the Civil War between North and South began. It was also very symbolic that the honor of the first shot at Fort Sumter was given to the famous journalist Edmund Ruffin, who wrote anti-slavery articles.

An interesting phenomenon during the Civil War was the emergence of army periodicals, which were largely spontaneous. So, when the troops of the northern army passed through the city of Macon (Missouri), they also captured the printing press left in the editorial office of the local newspaper. Several journalists and printers who fought in the ranks of the northerners took the press with them and began publishing an army newspaper called “The Union”. The role of war correspondents, who at that time did not yet have a special status and were exposed to significant risk, was extremely high: they delivered the most up-to-date information from the theater of military operations to the audience.

● The place of visual information on print pages in the system of “new journalism” methods.

The first photograph was taken in 1839 by French inventor Louis Daguerre, but it took more than forty years to perfect the process before the first photographic illustration was published in The New York Daily Graphic on March 4, 1880. From now on, illustrated publications acquired the character of documents, could record facts, carry information about real events, and the development of event photography led to the emergence of professional photo reporters.

This was very important for the development of the “yellow press” and publications aimed at a large, low-brow audience. The illustrations made it possible to better understand the journalistic text, to perceive the information offered more emotionally and to see the details of the incidents “with my own eyes.” In the typological diversity of the press, specialized publications have appeared, publishing, first of all, the everyday life of police and the intensity of sports competitions.

The technology for making halftone photographic clichés, which appeared in England in the 1850s, has been improved for a long time. It first found widespread use in the newspaper business only in 1897, when it began to be used in the production of the New York newspaper The Tribune. Improved technology ensured fast and high-quality production of newspaper clichés. In addition, the production of a halftone cliche was approximately fifteen times cheaper than the preparation of a hand engraving of the same size, which ensured a significant reduction in the cost of producing illustrated publications and the cost of sold newspapers.

From now on, a huge array of photographic illustrations appeared on the pages of newspapers and magazines.

The first illustrated newspaper in the world was The Illustrated London News by Herbert Ingram. Already in the first issue, published on May 14, 1842, sixteen pages were devoted to such topics as the war in Afghanistan, a train crash in France, a review of the programs of candidates in the US presidential election, a report on crime, a description of a costume ball at Buckingham Palace, theatrical and book reviews. All this was accompanied by thirty-two engravings, allowing illustrators to see people, places and events that until then most readers could only imagine. The publication began to present its audience with a vivid picture of British and world news.

The illustrated edition became a type of document.

But the image has not only practical significance, simply and clearly presenting information and giving rise to a feeling of presence at the scene of the event. The front page of a publication can have a significant impact on readers because it reflects the publication's policies. The illustration on the first page emotionally prepares the reader to evaluate the “nail” material. The importance of visuals cannot be overestimated. With the advent of new technologies in the world of press, drawings began to be increasingly replaced by photographs. This required improving the skills of journalist-photographers in order to be able to real life find a plot that emotionally reflects a current social problem.

The priority of the visual over the textual component of the issue allows the audience to visually and figuratively experience emotions. Since the perception of visual images primarily occurs on a subconscious level, publications using this technique address their content to a person’s unconscious instinctive attraction. The sensationalism of such illustrative material redirects the reader’s attention from co-thinking to empathy. Here are just some of the techniques for visualizing journalistic sensationalism: depicting crime scenes and scandalous incidents, publishing portraits of criminals and victims, creating shocking illustrations for materials on taboo topics, photo reports from the theater of war, presentation of exotic information.

● Mass media in the conditions of transition to the information society.

The modern information environment is a product of mass society, in which mass culture and communication predominate, and their formation, in turn, is largely due to the spread of the media. Mass society arises in countries that, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, embarked on the path of modernization, that is, the accelerated development of the industrial sector of the economy. Industrial (conveyor) production automatically gives birth to new type a consumer unlike the person of previous eras.

Already in the 1950s, researchers drew Special attention on the influence of technology on media development. The most prominent representative of this trend in communication studies was the Canadian philosopher and cultural scientist, sociologist and literary critic Marshall McLuhan. His idea of ​​a “global village” logically followed from the ideas of economic theorist Harold Iness, who believed that the development of mass media and communication technology helps overcome the previous limitations of knowledge and information - space and time, and therefore believed that the inevitable transformation of electronic media into a kind of “nervous information system” of society.

Marshall McLuhan, already in his early works, considered forms of communication as a leading factor in cultural evolution, including language, money, roads, printing, broadcasting, television and computers as means of communication. In his concept, an event acquires social significance not in itself, but in connection with messages transmitted about it through communication. And the transition from printed to electronic means of communication creates a new type of perception of reality, in which a person is included in everything that happens holistically. The researcher calls this period the era of the “global village,” which is characterized by “detraditionalization”—the weakening of traditional ties, hierarchies, and values.

In his opinion, society was alternately dominated first by oral, then by written and printed, and now by electrical and electronic types of communication. The spread of electronic media is returning society back to a “tribal world” with oral forms of communication, but at the same time included in the global communication network. The coordinates of the “center” and “periphery” are removed, and the individual can simultaneously experience the state of both objects close to him and objects distant from him. In this sense, the process of globalization directly depends on the technical evolution of the media.

Global media have a kind of monopoly on constructing world public opinion, shaping the agenda and assessing the importance of current or planned events. Global advertising - an event broadcast simultaneously on all leading channels in the world - forces an instant reaction to what is happening on-line.

The constantly ongoing ideologization of society, in which there is an active production of myths, alarms researchers focused on humanistic values ​​and de-ideologization of mass consciousness. Leaders of industrialized countries and governments first sounded the alarm about the negative aspects of information technology on July 23, 2000, when they gathered in Okinawa, Japan, for the G8 meeting. Already in September, one hundred and eighty-seven heads of state and government of the world gathered at the UN headquarters in New York to discuss informationological problems raised in Okinawa at the Millennium Summit. Among the leading issues raised was the growing differentiation of information consumers between the poor and the rich: “There is the possibility of a dangerous new gap in literacy levels as a result of the formation of increasing unevenness in access to the opportunities provided by new technologies of communication and information.”

The confrontation between freedom and responsibility turned out to be connected with the theoretical and practical interpretation of the concept of “free flow of information”, which arose in the United States, asserting the right of Western powers, especially America itself, to freely disseminate an unlimited amount of information over a practically unlimited territory. The practice of “free flow of information” actually assigned entire regions of the world the role of only a consumer of information. New forms of dependence emerged, called “information imperialism,” which, in turn, gave rise to the concept of a new international information order. This concept addressed the problem of uneven distribution of information between countries and regions of the world, arguing that the liberation and development of national media - component struggle for political, economic and social independence. This is how the political declaration of the non-aligned states adopted in 1976 in Colombo formulated the pressing tasks of our time. In 1979, at a similar conference in Warsaw, these provisions were clarified and specified.

At the initiative of UNESCO, in 1977-1979, a study of global information processes was carried out. The report of the McBride Commission, presented to the 21st session of the UNESCO General Conference in Belgrade (1980), demonstrated the consequences of uneven information exchange using a wealth of factual material. In particular, negative trends were noted caused by the dominance of transnational corporations in the field of press, radio and television; suggested that in expanding communication systems preference should be given to non-commercial forms of mass communication and that, recognizing the need for profit of the mass media, consideration should be given to how to help reduce the negative influence that purely commercial considerations have on the organization and content of national and international flow of information.

The report, directed against psychological warfare, emphasizes the need to exchange information in accordance with international law, based on recognition of sovereignty, equality, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, and recognition of their right to self-determination. The document states that freedom without responsibility leads to distortions and abuses, but in the absence of freedom it is impossible to realize responsibility.

The speech of the outstanding Irish public figure, winner of a number of awards for strengthening peace, Sean McBride, caused heated discussion and even fierce criticism from those who sought to legitimize the “right of might” in the field of international information exchange. Theoretical debates around the theory of “free flow of information” began to acquire a pronounced ideological and political orientation. The position of opponents of the concept of a new international information order was reflected in the so-called Talloires Declaration of 1981. According to it, the further the press is removed from government and legislative bodies, the freer it is, and vice versa.

In recent years, in a post-confrontation world, UNESCO's efforts have concentrated on promoting press independence, freedom and pluralism around the world. The entire pathos of declarations on the development of independence and pluralism in Africa (Windhoek, 1991), Asia (Alma-Ata, 1992), and Latin America (Santiago, 1994) was aimed at achieving this goal. The day of the adoption of the Windhoek Declaration, May 3, has been declared World Press Freedom Day.

● Spiritual journalism as a type of creativity. The role of journalism in the revival of culture as a system of values.

Studying the history of development social thought impossible without studying the problem of humanization of the individual and all social relations, an integral part of which is the problem of the spiritual development of society. Spiritual journalism is created by both church and secular figures. Its most significant difference in content is that it is focused on secular issues related to the arrangement of social relations.

The role of Russian spiritual journalism consists, firstly, in establishing Orthodoxy as a love of humanity in the mass consciousness; secondly, in the formation of official religious ideology; thirdly, its purpose is to be a conductor of secular, socio-political ideas, primarily state ones.

Spiritual journalism in Rus' dates back to the middle of the 10th century, when the first examples of Christian preaching appeared. But it was in the 11th century that book forms of spiritual journalism became extremely popular among the urban population. Three big themes of Metropolitan Hilarion’s “Sermon on Law and Grace” - first, the relationship between law and mercy; secondly, the significance of Epiphany for the Russian land; thirdly, the problems of the further development of the Russian state - allow the largest researcher of Ancient Rus', Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev, to claim that this is a political and journalistic treatise in which the most pressing topical issues modernity.

The Russian Church began its moral and educational mission among the people with a primitive pagan religion, not in the least imbued with moral principles. The main motives for serving idols of the pagans were self-interest and crude calculation. Replacing the principle of ruthlessness with love of humanity became the main leitmotif of works of spiritual journalism for many centuries.

The main goal of spiritual journalism is the moral transformation of society as a whole and each of its members individually. Destroying polygamy and laying the foundation for the establishment of the status of women as wives and mothers, as well as weakening servile bondage, Christian publicists actively began to reorganize the political structure of Rus'.

The peacemaking activity of the Russian church hierarchy and the mediation and representative responsibilities associated with it, which it initially assumed on its own initiative, very soon created a special position for spiritual publicists in the sphere of state life - the position of envoys. Clergymen who actively preach philanthropy became the princes' most common ambassadors both in internal inter-princely relations and in international mediation.

The main theme of spiritual journalism in Rus' comes down to the following: preaching Christian love for man and society; a Christian as a free person who is responsible for what is happening; the internal structure of a Christian as the education of high moral principles: respect history, behave modestly at the table, quietly help others, take care of nature, do not litter around you with household waste, words, or bad ideas.

● N.I. Novikov is the founder of satirical journalism in Russia.

The end of the 1760s was marked by a sudden increase in the number of magazines with a pronounced satirical orientation, designed for a wide readership. A remarkable feature of the emergence of this mass satirical journalism was that the initiative in awakening interest in periodicals of this type came from the highest authority in the person of Empress Catherine II.

In January 1769, she organized the publication of weekly sheets called “All sorts of things,” allowing everyone to publish similar magazines at the same time. With the help of a magazine in which light, non-binding satire interspersed with edifying teachings, manipulating the opinions of numerous correspondents of the magazine, often imaginary, Catherine II hoped to lead the public opinion of the country, offering readers her vision of the general political situation in the state, imposing a favorable understanding of the standing problems facing the government and ways to solve them.

“All sorts of things” advocated satire in a “smiling spirit”, for exposing vices, but not individuals and specific shortcomings. Superstition and passion for rumors, stinginess, envy and bad manners, tyranny and useless fashion, a tendency to bad habits and intolerance towards others - these are the main objects of satire on the pages of the magazine.

The position taken by “Everything and everything” caused a response in the magazine “Truten”, which was published by Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov. On page V of this magazine, dated May 26, there was a letter addressed to the publisher of “Drone” from a certain Pravdulyubov, in which the rules of satire “in a smiling spirit” were sharply criticized. The magazine was published from May 1769 to April 1770. In the journal, Novikov examines three types of activity: military, civil and court. He evaluates them critically, especially the last one.

The drone is a slacker who doesn't know what to do. In the preface, the magazine publisher admits to readers his weakness: he is lazy and therefore does not read anything, does not correspond with anyone and does not serve anywhere. But he certainly wants to benefit the fatherland, and therefore decides to publish other people’s works and asks to send him letters, essays and translations in prose and verse, especially satirical, critical and others that serve to correct morals, and promises to print all of them in his sheets.

In 1769, Novikov chose as the epigraph for his magazine the prickly lines from the fable of Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov: “They work, and you eat their work.” In 1770, Novikov realized that it was necessary to change the tone of satire. He changes the epigraph again to the words of Sumarokov: “Strict instruction is dangerous where there is a lot of atrocity and madness.” Novikov emphasizes that he is aware of the danger of his attacks, and Pravdolyubov is pointedly expelled from the magazine. However, at the end of April 1770, the Drone was closed.

In June 1770, “Pustomelya” appeared. Guided by cautious tactics, Novikov was forced to act in this case through a figurehead (the report to the Academy of Sciences with a request to print “Pustomelya” was written in Novikov’s hand on behalf of the broker Fok). In total, only two issues were published, after which this magazine was closed. The reason for the closure is Novikov’s continuation of a satirical line that was objectionable to Catherine II.

Catherine II is again trying to lead public opinion by deciding to take up drama. In 1771, she wrote 5 comedies, which in 1772 appeared on the stage of the court theater without attribution.

Taking advantage of this, from mid-April 1772 Novikov published a weekly satirical magazine “Painter”, dedicated to the unknown writer of the comedy “Oh, Time”. Continuing the ideological and thematic direction of “Drone,” the writer continues to denounce the nobility, which has lost ties with their homeland, national soil, people, and Russian culture. He creates vivid caricatures of dandies and dandies, ridiculing their language, clogged with foreign words. The magazine exposes social evil. Novikov uses more satire techniques, gives more subtle psychological characteristics to his characters, and the author's narration intersperses with the statements of the characters themselves. At the end of June 1773, the magazine was closed without explanation to the reader.

From June 8 to September 2, 1774, Novikov’s last satirical magazine, “Wallet,” was published. Its leading theme was the denunciation of the gallomaniacism of the Russian nobles. The central target of criticism is a character with the telling name Chevalier de Mansonge (from the French “lie”), who came to Russia to teach children, although in his homeland he was a hairdresser. The very name of the magazine is telling: in the 18th century, according to French fashion, men wore wigs with braids, over which they put a net called a purse. For Novikov, this wallet is a symbol of gallomaniacism, which he falls upon. The magazine was closed.

A few years later, in 1782, Novikov decided to again appear before his readers in the former guise of a merciless accuser - and took up the publication of a magazine, which he innocuously called: “City and Country Library, or Fun and Pleasures of the Mind and Heart in Idle Time.” The life of this publication lasted quite a long time: for five years, Russian proverbs were published in the magazine, and on the topic of each proverb, a satirical story was created about its possible origin, and the proverb itself served as the title of the story. The plots of these stories hinted at real events of court life. Translations of stories by Voltaire, Diderot and other French freethinkers were also published here.

Catherine II realized that freedom of speech leads to undermining state power. In 1792, by personal order of the Empress, Novikov was captured and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress. He was declared a “state criminal” and sentenced to death. At the last moment, the Empress replaced it with a 15-year sentence.

Novikov, however, spent only about four years in prison: after the death of Catherine II in 1796, by decree of Paul I, he was released, but did not publish anything else.

● Information wars in Russia in the first half of the 19th century: Patriotic War 1812 and the Decembrist movement.

The Patriotic War of 1812 is called by many historians the first information war of Russia. The term "information warfare" has a double meaning. Firstly, this is the impact on the civilian population and military personnel of another state through the dissemination of certain information. And secondly, these are targeted actions taken to achieve information superiority by causing damage to the enemy’s information, information processes and information systems.

The information war appears as a set of propaganda techniques of ideological confrontation, among which the most important are the injection of disinformation and the presentation of information in a manner beneficial to oneself.

The idea of ​​creating an agitation and propaganda center at the headquarters of the Russian Army arose immediately after the outbreak of hostilities. His first steps were related to the publication of propaganda materials addressed to enemy soldiers: leaflets, proclamations, journalistic brochures.

The fact is that Russian soldiers had already received similar leaflets and appeals printed by the propaganda center of Napoleon’s army, and it was necessary to start counter-propaganda. It is known that Napoleon attached great importance to the word, and therefore he began the war by discrediting the image of Russia. From the pages of newspapers and magazines, Napoleon addressed the French: “Do you think that Russia is a distant, peaceful country that treats us with respect? No! This is a real aggressor. Russian barbarians are enemies of civilization and everything European!”

4.5 months before the start of the war it was developed detailed plan information confrontation between Russia. The report, written by the Polish general Mikhail Sokolnitsky, who was in French military service, was written so well, convincingly, powerfully, everything that needs to be done and how to destroy Russia, bring it to its knees and then liquidate it simply as a nation, as a state, is so spelled out there. which could be a textbook on information warfare.

the main idea The report is that it is necessary to provoke and inflame interethnic hatred at any cost, primarily between Russians and Ukrainians. With the help of the Cossacks and Crimean Tatars, other nations can be aroused. Next it was planned to move to the Caucasus. The plan for the war with Russia was designed for three years.

At the beginning of 1812, the propaganda work “On the Growth of the Power of Russia from Its Origin to the Beginning of the 19th Century” was published, the author of which was named as the publicist and historian Charles-Louis Lesure. The manuscript of the book was corrected, and perhaps in some places the text was written, by Napoleon himself. The book claimed that Emperor Peter the Great, before he passed away, left a secret plan for his descendants and future rulers of Russia. It was bequeathed to bring unrest and strife into international politics, to support Russian peoples in a belligerent mood. The main goal of all this is to achieve power over all of Europe, capture Constantinople and rush through the Persian Gulf to the lands of India.

Moreover, the Grand Army was completely atheistic. French memoirists wrote: “We watched with surprise and incomprehension as Russians cried and wore icons. They pray in front of these boards and try to excite themselves with religious fanaticism.” By that time, the French, imbued with the spirit of the revolution, believed only in their own own strength, the strength of a person who creates his own destiny, who wins victories himself. And because of the genius who leads them - Napoleon.

So in 1812, Russia had to face not just the invasion of a huge army, but an unprecedented information provocation.

Among the leaflets of the Main Apartment is an appeal to the peoples of Europe “Official News from the Army,” which proclaimed the principle of political independence of European states; proclamations calling on the peoples of Europe to rise up to fight Napoleon; appeals to the soldiers of the Grand Army to lay down their arms.

The printing house had to work in difficult traveling conditions. However, the propaganda journalism of the printing house of the Main Apartment includes “Journals of Military Actions” - official documents of the headquarters; journalistic leaflets and brochures; literary works, published at the headquarters of Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov.

For counter-propaganda, it was necessary to launch, first of all, an ideological war against everything French. The conservative press began to elevate everything Russian to the level of apotheosis and belittle everything French to the point of the most crude and flat ridicule.

The first was achieved by a number of articles and poetic works dedicated to Russian patriotism, courage, generosity and other virtues and written in a sublime style or, on the contrary, close to the popular popular style.

Governor General of Moscow Count Fedor Vasilyevich Rostopchin is a regular contributor to the Russian Messenger magazine. He wrote posters - appeals to soldiers and civilians. The main technique is stylization, a crude imitation of the popular language.

In his bitterness against Napoleon and the French, the publisher of the Russian Messenger, Sergei Nikolaevich Glinka, went to extremes and even incited his compatriots against the peaceful French trading in Moscow. Thus, in the article “About Moscow Signs” the magazine bursts out with anger over the fact that on French signs in Moscow “Russian speeches are always placed lower than French” and that in general there are too many French signs in the Russian city.

In contrast to them was the magazine “Son of the Fatherland,” which began to be published in St. Petersburg in October 1812 by Nikolai Ivanovich Grech. The government considered it necessary to have a semi-official socio-political magazine in the capital. The civil free-thinking of “Son of the Fatherland” was manifested in the characterization of the war as a struggle for the national independence of the Motherland. “We will die free and in a free Fatherland!” – this was the leitmotif of all the magazine’s materials.

Grech introduced an interesting innovation into his magazine - illustrations, the content of which were subordinated to the general patriotic goal of the magazine. The main genre of illustrations is political caricature, ridiculing Napoleon and his associates. Drawing for "Son of the Fatherland" famous artists Alexey Gavrilovich Venetsianov and Ivan Ivanovich Terebenev. Often the themes of these cartoons echoed the satirical fables of Ivan Andreevich Krylov “Wagon Train”, “Crow and Hen”, “Wolf in the Kennel” and others, published in “Son of the Fatherland”.

The Patriotic War of 1812 contributed to the development of new forms of printing, which the Decembrists would later use: “flying” leaflets-appeals that promptly responded to events. So it was not only the growth of national self-awareness that allowed Matvey Ivanovich Muravyov-Apostol to say on behalf of all the Decembrists: “We were children of 1812.” The Decembrists created propaganda works that were illegally distributed among soldiers - “A Curious Conversation” by Nikita Mikhailovich Muravyov (1822), “Orthodox Catechism” by Sergei Ivanovich Muravyov-Apostol (1825); songs were composed and distributed in folk style, which from the end of 1822 were jointly written by Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev and Alexander Alexandrovich Bestuzhev; Critical reviews and articles were written praising the strength and power of the Russian people, who found themselves under the yoke of the serf owners. Thus, an information war unfolded, aimed at mass consciousness in order to form an emotional perception beneficial to the influencing party.

In the 60–80s in England, various types of periodicals received a new impetus for development. Thus, many evening newspapers appeared in London.

Weeklies were popular in the 60s and 70s. Vanity Fair (1868) began to feature something like comic books with color lithographic drawings, and also introduced a gossip section. The publication's success increased. In 1874, the weekly De World: E Journal for Men and Women was created. It contained reviews of modern history, promised to reflect the interests of women, and publish critical materials written by “gentlemen and scholars.” In 1877, the weekly Truz (Truth) appeared in the style of the World. At the end of the 19th century, new literary publications appeared, but some of them were short-lived. Periodicals of the second half of the 19th century. was quite specialized. “Wide World Magazine” (“Magazine of the whole world”, 1898) wrote about adventures and travels; there were religious, professional, technical, sports and other publications.

The firstborn of the mass press was the national daily newspaper "Daily Mail", founded by A. Harmsworth in 1896. His desire to create morning newspapers was explained by the fact that the press was poorly oriented towards the new reading public - clerks and artisans. The Daily Mail was precisely aimed at those “boys and girls leaving school every year who want to read everything that is written simply and interestingly enough.”

In 1900, Pearson began publishing a cheap newspaper, the Daily Express. She put the news on the front page, as is customary in the American press.

Thus, English "new" journalism was associated with the emergence of the mass press with all its advantages and disadvantages. Undoubtedly, it played a significant role in involving broad layers into the orbit of influence of the media, which were becoming widespread. She revived the newspaper and magazine market in England and introduced new characteristics into journalistic professionalism. If earlier the range of issues that journalists wrote about was limited, as a rule, to sports and finance, now people who understand the issues are needed international politics, military affairs, aviation, motoring, farming, gardening, home economics, theater, music, cinema.

Many parties had their own newspapers.

Thus, by the 20s. XX century The English newspaper and magazine world was a complex and contradictory unity. In English journalism, trends have emerged that will clearly manifest themselves in the next period of media development. R. Maxwell intended his new Sunday newspaper for the residents of a united Europe, which was published in May 1990 and became a regional publication. The high-quality, richly illustrated (the newspaper uses color printing) “European” (“European”) was published in a circulation of 300 thousand copies.

But in general, in the early 90s, a situation developed in the country that was unfavorable for the press. Due to the narrowing of the advertising market, the circulation of many newspapers and, accordingly, the income from these publications began to decline. The income of the News of the World and the Sun fell slightly. Sunday newspapers suffered certain losses (Sunday Correspondent and a number of other new Sunday publications closed). R. Murdoch's Today (Today) brought losses. During the period under review, only high-quality newspapers maintained their circulation. “quality” press, in covering the most important socio-political problems, appealed to the reader’s mind, relying on a system of arguments that convinced the audience of the logic of reasoning and evidence. The popular press mainly used the method of suggestion, which "inculcates mental states, that is, ideas, feelings and sensations without the aid of logic or any evidence." An abundance of illustrations, catchy headlines in large print, a desire to focus on the language of the street - all this became the distinctive features of “popular” newspapers. A significant part of the newspaper space of these publications was and is allocated for advertising and announcements; news takes up a very insignificant place. According to the owners of mass newspapers, there is no need to print on their pages what can be seen on television, that is, information. It is no coincidence that the increase in circulation of mass newspapers caused concern among the English public in the 70s.

In 1991, England was faced with a phenomenon that could hardly be called typical for its journalism: the demand for mass media decreased somewhat and interest in quality publications increased. This was explained by the increased need of the audience for serious information, as well as the increased vulgarization of popular newspapers. Some decline in interest in the mass media was also caused by the fact that the youth audience was reoriented not only to television. It had at its disposal a wide range of video products and computer games, which are quite difficult for “old” media to compete with. In the 60s, the position of the most important periodicals in Great Britain strengthened. The Guardian's circulation increased and reached 21 thousand copies (this newspaper was controlled by the Manchester Guardian and Evening News Ltd.). The Daily Telegraph was far ahead of its “quality” competitors: its circulation amounted to 1,407 thousand copies. The circulation of the mass newspaper Daily Mirror has crossed the mark of 5 million copies. The circulation of the Daily Mail has increased (2,095 thousand copies). The circulation of the daily central newspaper for the business world, the Financial Times, continued to remain low - 156 thousand copies. The circulation of the Daily Express (3,853 thousand) and the Daily Sketch (915 thousand) decreased slightly.

In 1967, it was revealed that newspapers not associated with the largest press magnates, especially medium and small publications, were experiencing serious difficulties, and some of them were on the verge of bankruptcy. Thus, by the beginning of the 70s, newspapers that published cheap advertising, the Daily Herald, ceased to exist; The News Chronicle and The Daily Sketch. If in 1960 there were 9 daily London newspapers published in the country, then in 1971 there were 8; the number of daily provincial newspapers decreased by 15 over the same period of time.

In 1966, the Daily Worker was replaced by the Morning Star, which, while remaining a communist publication, declared itself to be the tribune of all leftist forces in the country. The Communist Party sought to strengthen its social base and strengthen ties with the Labor movement. At first, the circulation of the Morning Star increased significantly, but then it decreased significantly. The problem of newspaper distribution has acquired a new urgency.

French journalism in the 2nd half. XIX - early XX century. Press laws. Press of the period of the Paris Commune. “The Dreyfus Affair” and political trends in French journalism. Newspaper “Le Figaro”.

Law on compulsory free primary education -> increasing the number of people reading.

“Big Four French. Press"

- “Ptitzhurnal”: On February 1, 1863, the first issue of the newspaper was published in Paris, which was sold at an incredibly low price - 1 sou (5 centimes!). It was the daily “Ptitzhurnal”, founded by Moïse-Polydor Millau. Personifying the people in “little people” - concierges, artisans, workers and cultivators - “Ptitzhurnal” tried to shamelessly flatter them, extolling their virtues, real and imaginary. Inventing numerous methods of self-promotion, “not afraid to be stupid,” the newspaper waged a real “hunt for the reader in own home" By providing readers with simple but varied information, often entertaining or sensational, and regularly publishing “police” novels with sequels, it quickly increases its circulation. By 1865 - 260 thousand, then the feuilleton novel by Emile Gaborier brings it to 300 thousand. A detailed account of the “Tropmann case” (about the murder of a family of 8 people) raises the circulation to 410 thousand, and only the installation of new Marnonn printing presses, which appeared in 1867, allows it to cope with technical problems. According to Zola, in those years, in the most remote corner of France, one could meet a shepherd relaxing with his flock and leafing through

- "Ptitzhurnal"

- "Ptiparisien"

- "Maten"

- “Journal”.

In the 60s, Ptizhurnal turned into a joint-stock company (the circulation could reach half a million copies).

Entertainment materials,

An attempt to establish feedback.

"Figaro" 1825 founded by Maurice Alois. (and is still published today).

The heyday of the newspaper is associated with the name of the major Parisian publisher J.-I. Wilmessana. Villemessant bought Le Figaro in 1854 and in a short time turned it into one of the most popular French newspapers.

At first, the newspaper positioned itself as a non-political publication. She attracted readers with the variety of information, wit, and intonation of direct conversation. Since 1856, Le Figaro has been published twice a week. Since 1866 it has become a daily publication.

Since 1867, the publication has acquired an increasingly definite anti-Bonapartist political overtones. In 1880, Francis Magnard became the head of the publication. The tone of the newspaper became more serious, and the quality of information and literary materials improved. It was Le Figaro that in 1885 published the “Manifesto of Symbolism” by Jean Moreas. A. France, E. Zola, M. Barres, M. Proust and other major writers and scientists collaborated with the newspaper. The peak of Figaro's popularity and influence came at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The newspaper's circulation reached 80 thousand copies.

F. Manyar ( before 1880) – with his arrival, a strong literary section appeared in the magazine (Emile Zola and others were published on its pages)

ü Wide network of correspondents in the provinces and abroad.

ü LeFigaro(Le Figaro) is a French daily newspaper. The name was given in honor of Figaro, the hero of Beaumarchais' plays. From his play “The Marriage of Figaro” the motto of the newspaper was taken, printed directly under its title: “Where there is no freedom of criticism, no praise can be pleasant” (French: “Sans la liberté de blâmer, iln'est point d"élogeflatteur” ).

ü Since 1866, the newspaper has been published daily. In 2005, the circulation was about 340 thousand copies.

ü In 1975, the newspaper was acquired by Robert Ersan. In 1999, the American investment fund CarlyleGroup acquired a 40% stake in the newspaper, which it sold in 2003. As of 2004, the newspaper is controlled by the conservative billionaire politician Serge Dassault, known as the head of the French aerospace group DassaultAviation. In a radio interview, Dassault said that “newspapers should promote healthy ideas.”

ü It is believed that the newspaper reflects the official point of view of the current French government and moderate right-wing parties in general. For this, “Figaro” is regularly criticized by “left-wing” publications such as “Liberation”, “Marianne” and others.

The surge of revanchist nationalist sentiments in France at that time was reflected in the press, as were the major scandals of the time, for example,

"THE DREYFUS CASE" - trial (1894-1906) in the case of espionage for the benefit of the German Empire, in which an officer of the French general staff, a Jew originally from Alsace (at that time a German territory), Captain Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935), was accused. The process played huge role in the history of France and Europe at the end of the 19th century.

Lecture: Society is divided into two camps: for and against Dreyfus.

Alfred Dreyfus is a Jew, could he serve France 100%? He was accused, found not guilty, and was released.

Emile Zola is a naturalist writer and journalist.

Collaborated with many French publications.

He independently investigated the “Dreyfus Affair” and the publication of the letter “I Accuse”. He was convicted, fined and imprisoned. He left France to avoid imprisonment and to experience general hatred towards him outside the country (crowds of people walked along the street shouting “Death to Zola!”, public burning of his books and publications in the library).

http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreyfus_Affair

Colonel Henri and Major Paty de Clam, strongly spoke out in favor of Dreyfus's betrayal of the Accusation. Trial of 1894

At the end of 1894, when the Dupuis cabinet was in power, with General Mercier as Minister of War, it was discovered in the general staff loss of several secret documents. After some time, the head of the intelligence bureau, Colonel Henri, presented to the War Ministry a bordereau, that is, a transmittal paper without a number or signature, which informed the addressee that secret military documents had been sent to him. It was Bordereau allegedly found in the discarded papers of a German military agent, Colonel Schwarzkoppen. Colonel Fabre and expert of the War Ministry recognized the handwriting of Captain Dreyfus. Alfred Dreyfus was arrested on October 15, 1894. Foreign Minister Ganoto, on the basis of some information, did not believe this bordereau and was against opening a case, but did not dare to insist on his own and subsequently played the ambiguous role of a person convinced of innocence, but who did not publicly declare it and supported ministries hostile to Dreyfus. War Minister Mercier, prompted to court martial.

The trial took place in Paris in December 1894, behind closed doors. The chief of the general staff, General Boisdeffre, his assistant General Gonz, Paty de Clam, Henri and others strongly insisted on Dreyfus's guilt. The judges hesitated - there was not enough evidence. Then, with the consent of the Minister of War, the investigator prepared a false document - a note allegedly written by the German ambassador and exposing Dreyfus in collaboration with the Germans. Dreyfus was sentenced for espionage and high treason to demotion and lifelong exile in Cayenne, and in January 1895 he was transferred to Devil's Island.

There’s a little history on Wikipedia, if anything, but that’s not the point, here’s more about Zola’s intervention in the case

http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_accuse_(article):

"I blame"(fr. "J'accuse") - an article by the French writer Emile Zola, published in the daily newspaper "Oror" (fr. "L'Aurore") January 13, 1898.

It was written in the form of an open letter addressed to French President Felix Faure, and accused the French government of anti-Semitism and the illegal imprisonment of Alfred Dreyfus. Zola pointed out the bias of the military court and the lack of serious evidence.

The letter was published on the front page of the newspaper and caused a stir both in France itself and far beyond its borders. Zola was accused of libel and convicted on February 23, 1898. To avoid prison, the writer fled to England. He was able to return to France only after the suicide of Colonel Henri and the flight of Major Esterhazy, two main figures in the Dreyfus affair, in June 1899.

Zola's article caused a wide resonance in the cultural world, becoming proof of the influence that the intellectual elite can have on those in power.

German press in the 2nd half. XIX - early XX century. The place of the press in public life. Political differentiation of newspapers. Contents of magazine periodicals.

The development of printing in Germany was slower than in advanced Western European countries. The reason is the fragmentation of Germany and severe censorship. In 1749 - restrictions for the political press. In 1788, scientific periodicals were subject to censorship. IN early XIX century, the German press was content with a dispassionate presentation of the facts, stingy and restrained in comments. A significant part of the materials were letters. In the mid-90s. XVIII century the need for reforms. The literary magazines Schiller's Ory and Goethe's Propylaea (aesthetic issues, problems of the state of modern culture and literature) became the spokesmen for the “aesthetic” program. Magazine "Athenaeum" by the Schlegel brothers. The impetus for the development of the political press was the Great French Revolution. Not all German periodicals are in support of France (“Berlin Evening Leaflets” is the organ of conservatives). But French influence at a certain stage turned out to be beneficial for German journalism. New newspapers and magazines appeared, and freedom of the press appeared in the left-bank territories. Since 1798 - “General Newspaper” by Kott. The bastions of German romanticism - “Newspaper for Hermits”, the literary and artistic magazine “Phoebus”, “Europe” - turned to German history and tried to awaken the national self-awareness of the Germans. In 1810 - strict censorship for German newspapers.

By the end of the 1840s. The situation in Germany continued to deteriorate. A split among the liberal-democratic intelligentsia. Its moderate wing was grouped around the Deutsche Gazeta, and the radical left - the German Spectator and Mannheim Journal magazines. The revolution of 1848 brought about the rise of the German press. The Assembly of the German Confederation abolishes censorship and declares freedom of the press. Many of the newspapers that emerged in the post-revolutionary era had a liberal and radical democratic orientation. Democratic Viennese newspapers: “Straightforward”, “Constitution”, “Radical”. All Viennese democratic newspapers advocated electoral and judicial reform, the separation of church and state, the abolition of noble privileges, the liberation of peasants from feudal taxes, etc. Another important topic German press: unification of Germany (liberal National Newspaper, Berlin General Newspaper, North German General Newspaper).

The most influential of the German provincial newspapers in the 19th century were the Frankfurt Zeitung, the Magdeburg Zeitung and especially the Cologne Newspaper. The main opponent of the democratic and liberal press is the New Prussian Newspaper. A special place in German political periodicals of the post-March period is occupied by the daily revolutionary-democratic newspaper of Karl Marx, the New Rhine Newspaper.

In the 1850s the German public to non-political publications that popularized natural science and historical and cultural knowledge. Among the non-political magazines, the monthly Vestermanus Monatsefte stood out (serious scientific articles were side by side with short stories and stories by realist writers). Magazines for family reading, in which popular science articles coexisted with moralizing publications and entertainment literature. Since 1852, K. Gutskov published the magazine “Entertainment in hearth and home", "Native Home", "Family Friend", and "Gazebo" were very popular. On July 6, 1854, the “General Union Definitions Concerning the Abuse of the Press” were published. The new law significantly limited freedom of speech. Bismarck financed the government press. The official organ of the “Iron Chancellor” became the once liberal Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung. Oversaw the development of new legislation on the press. On May 7, 1874, the Reichstag adopted a law on the press (one copy for the police department). Editor information, etc. Three cases when printed publications could be confiscated (lack of information about the publisher, executive editor and owner of the printing house, publication in wartime of information about the movement of troops, publication of materials containing signs of violation of the criminal code). At the end of the 70-80s. In the 19th century, Bismarck's press policies were more repressive. Ban on periodicals of German Social Democrats. The daily newspaper “Forward” and the magazine “New Time” (for workers). Before and after the First World War, nationalism and chauvinism in the press intensified. The popularity of liberal publications is falling.

Due to the fact that in the 19th century periodicals gained a mass audience, while competition between various newspapers and magazines increased, each publication, especially commercial ones, needed to attract as many readers as possible. As a result, the emphasis was deliberately placed on the broadest sections of the population who were neither sufficiently educated nor properly erudite. That is, the information presented in the press had to be written in simple, often even primitive language and contain only facts that were truly interesting to the reader, although not always reliable.

In 1881, the following happened: responsibility for the content of newspaper articles, reporting of inaccurate information, speculation and conjecture in the press was abolished. This largely freed the hands of the authors of the so-called “yellow press” (this term originated in the USA and denoted publications, often very inexpensive, containing exclusively entertaining information, based on unverified sources, designed to evoke as many emotions as possible in the reader, rather than teach something useful and broaden your horizons).

Fragment of a 19th century newspaper.

Halfpenny slips and other cheap publications

Until the mid-19th century, most taxes discouraged the emergence of inexpensive newspapers. But later, many of the duties were abolished, which led to a large increase in the number of different publications. In addition, it became possible to make them extremely cheap for the consumer, which significantly expanded the target audience.

Large publishing houses were dealt a strong blow by the appearance of the so-called halfpenny sheets at the end of the 19th century. Not only were they very cheap (hence the name), their content was such as to maximally emotionally shake up a simple audience that was prone to sensations. The tone of the articles was primitive and vulgar, no serious and useful information was provided there, but there were scandals, intrigues and unverified information in abundance. The goal is to entertain a bored audience in the most primitive way. It turns out that some really important news might not have reached the reader, but it didn’t matter to the creators of such cheap newspapers - the more sensations and rumors the articles contained, the more willingly the general public read them. Even the facts that actually took place in this case could be distorted beyond recognition.

The distribution of such leaflets caused significant damage to the reputation of the press in general, and it took time for its trust rating to rise again. However, the so-called tabloid publications, which attract with their sensationalism, are often in demand in our time.