"Golden Age" of Russian literature of the 19th century. The Golden Age of Russian Literature: Russian classical literature of the 19th century Abstract on the topic of the Golden Age of Russian Literature

"Golden Age" of Russian Literature. Romanticism, realism

Introduction

1. Romanticism as a reflection of Russian national identity

2. A realistic approach to the problem of Russia’s historical choice

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

To understand the characteristics of Russian culture of the 19th century. knowledge of the nature of politics, economics and law of the Russian Empire is essential. As a result of Peter's reforms in Russia, an absolute monarchy was established and the bureaucracy was legislated, which was especially evident in the “golden age” of Catherine II. Beginning of the 19th century was marked by the ministerial reform of Alexander I, who in practice pursued a line to strengthen the feudal-absolutist order, taking into account the new “spirit of the times,” primarily the influence of the Great French Revolution of 1789 on the minds and on Russian culture. One of the archetypes of this culture is the love of freedom, glorified by Russian poetry, starting with Pushkin and ending with Tsvetaeva. The establishment of ministries marked the further bureaucratization of management and improvement of the central apparatus Russian Empire. One of the elements of modernization and Europeanization of the Russian state machine is the establishment of the State Council, whose function was to centralize legislative affairs and ensure the uniformity of legal norms. Ministerial reform and the formation of the State Council completed the reorganization of central government bodies that existed until 1917. After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, Russia firmly embarked on the path of capitalist development.

The relevance of this topic is determined by the colossal influence exerted by this period of Russian culture, both on modern culture Russia and the culture of Western countries.

Purpose This work is a study of the main features of Russian culture of the 19th century.

In connection with this goal, the following research objectives can be formulated:

· consider the features of the formation of Russian culture in the 19th century;

· due to the extensive material, consider only the work of the greatest Russian writers, their view of Russia’s historical choice and the problem of man.

The abstract consists of 5 sections. The first formulates the purpose and objectives of the study, the second describes the features of the formation of the Russian national idea, the third gives an overview of the work of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky, in the fourth the main conclusions on the content of the work are made, in the fifth primary sources on the topic of the work are indicated.

1. Romanticism as a reflection of Russian national identity

The significance of the 19th century for the development of Russian culture is due to processes that predetermine the nature of Russia's mentality and its main contradictions. Such processes include the formation of Russian national identity, the formation of the nation, the reflection of these processes and the social thought of the 19th century.

If for Western Europe the 19th century is the century of the development of capitalist society, the complete collapse of absolutist monarchies, the destruction of the class division of society, then for Russia this is the time of creating conditions for the destruction of feudal relations. V.G. Belinsky sees in Russia a country “where people trade in people, without even having the excuse that American planters use, he argued that the Negro is not a person... where people call themselves not by names, but by nicknames: Vanka, Steshka, Palashka; ... where... there are not only no guarantees for personality, honor and property, but there is not even police order, but only huge corporations of various official thieves and robbers." The public execution of the country develops in conditions of despotism and omnipotence of the state, class division of society, absolute lack of rights of the population, the existence of serfdom.

Russian national identity is forged from the contradiction “between the idea of ​​an empire, a powerful state of the military-police type, and the religious-messianic idea of ​​a kingdom that went into the underground layer, the layer of the people.” Russian spirituality is characterized by a non-ethnic, geopolitical understanding of statehood , geographical, i.e. the state is not power extending over a certain territory that has clearly defined borders; statehood for Russian spirituality is a religious phenomenon, in popular vocabulary called Holy Rus'; behind this concept “is not, to put it today, a national idea, not a geographical one.” and not an ethnic concept. Holy Rus' is almost a cosmic category. At least, within its boundaries (or its boundlessness) both the Old Testament Eden and the Gospel Palestine fit." Holy Rus' has no local characteristics. It has only two characteristics: the first is to be, in a sense, the whole world, including even paradise; the second is to be the world under the sign of true faith. Russian national self-consciousness of the 19th century absorbs these two incompatible phenomena: the Holy Russian Land and the idea of ​​Russia as a national state. Russian self-awareness was able to see in Russia, identified geographically and ethnographically, a “special becoming” of the Retinue of Rus'.

Gogol wrote from Italy: “Rus! Rus'! I see you, from my wonderful, beautiful distance I see you poor, scattered and uncomfortable; the daring divas of nature, crowned by the daring divas of art, will not amuse or frighten the eyes, cities with many-windowed high palaces, ingrown into the cliffs, picturesque trees and ivy grown into the houses... It is openly deserted and even in you; like dots, like icons, your inconspicuous cities stick out inconspicuously among the plains: nothing will seduce or enchant the eye." But what incomprehensible, secret force attracts you? What's calling and . sobs and . grabs the heart?... Isn’t it here that an aimless thought will not be born in you, when will you be without end?... Uh! what a believing, wonderful, unknown distance to the earth! Rus! This duality in the perception of Russia will leave a special imprint on Russian self-awareness, give rise to contradictions in it, often insoluble, and create a special Russian literature, which, being a purely Russian national phenomenon, will raise global, cosmic issues.

Freemasonry played a special role in the development of Russian consciousness in the 19th century. Russian Freemasonry set as its task the search for true Christianity, interconfessional Christianity. Masonic lodges became the first forms of self-organization of society at the beginning of the 19th century. It is through Masonic lodges that the ideas of universal equality penetrate into the social thought of Russia; in the organizations of free masons, the moral ideal of the individual, the ideas of humanism, and nobility are formed. It was within the Masonic lodges that future secret societies matured.

The formation of Russian national identity was facilitated by the War of 1812 and the campaign abroad. The Patriotic War united people of different classes and revealed the origins of national unity. M.I. Muravyov-Apostol wrote: “We were children of 1812, it was 1812, and not a foreign campaign at all, that created the subsequent social movement, which was in its essence not borrowed, not European, but purely Russian.” “It was the growth of national self-awareness, a sense of unity and closeness with their people, the rise of national patriotism could not help but create a new spiritual atmosphere among the most conscientious Russian people who considered Russian problems as your own. The layer of these people was not numerous; it was a narrow layer of the Russian educated nobility, caught between the autocratic monarchy and the dark peasant masses. The Decembrist movement was purely Russian. A nation cannot emerge under conditions of class division of society. The medieval idea of ​​the divine illumination of social inequality among people was finally destroyed by the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th–18th centuries. Russian consciousness absorbs these ideas under the influence of the events of 1812-1815.

The growth of national self-awareness finds its expression in Russian romanticism. If Western European romanticism was a reaction to the age of reason, bloody consequences The Great French Revolution, then Russian romanticism reflected the process of transformation of the Russian people into a nation, which is why it becomes a completely original phenomenon. The aesthetic expression of romanticism was the desire to depict the national character and national color of the life of the people. “May purely Russian poetry be created for the glory of Russia, may Holy Rus' be not only in the civil, but also in the moral world, the first power in the universe! The faith of the forefathers, national morals, chronicles, songs and folk tales are the best, purest sources for our literature.” - this is the program of Russian romanticism early XIX century, formulated by B.K. Kuchelbecker.

Romanticism managed to go beyond the boundaries of the classes of people, switch to moral characteristics, show interest in the human personality, found the courage to recognize the same right to moral dignity in both peasants and nobles, V.M. Karamzin V.A. Zhukovsky, A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov and M. Koltsov formed a powerful movement of literary romanticism in Russian culture, which reflected the formation of the nation.

2. A realistic approach to the problem of Russia’s historical choice

A major role in the development of national self-awareness was played by the work of N.M. Karamzin “History of the Russian State”. The basis of this process is imbued with the “Philosophical Letters” of P.Ya. Chaadaev, who created the first philosophy of Russian history. The polemics between Westerners and Slavophiles began with the articles of A.S. Khomyakov “About the Old and the New” and Kireevsky I.V. “In response to A.S. Khomyakov", published in 1939. The pathos of this polemic was to find ways to transform the Russian people into the Russian nation.

The answer to this question lay through solving the problem of the place and fate of Russia in the world cultural process. Who are we? Europeans and our path are a repetition of the path of Western Europe: or a new, young civilization, following its own path and capable of showing the world examples of morality. The founders of the Westernizing trend can be considered both the revolutionary and democratically minded A.I. Herzen and V.G. Belinsky, and liberal thinkers D.L. Kryukova, T.N. Granovsky, I.S. Turgeneva, K.D. Kavelina, B.I. Chicherina. Westerners believed that the Russian people are a European people and their path is connected with the development of human freedom, just like the path of Western Europe. Russia is a backward country, it needs enlightenment, this is precisely what makes Russia unique. According to N. Berdyaev, Westerners had very little idea of ​​the features real life modern Europe and were guided by the utopian ideal of European life.

Slavophiles pinned their hopes for a special, different development of Russia on the fact that Russian culture was being formed on a unique spiritual soil - Orthodoxy. It is precisely the difference from Europe in the foundations of Russian spirituality that allows it to occupy a special place in world civilization. Orthodoxy provides Russian culture with integrity, while the duality of European culture rests on Catholicism. Catholicism and Catholic scholasticism, which led Europe to the religious, deprive European culture of the integrity necessary for the existence of civilization. Europe, with its rationality, mechanization, and violent statehood, is deeply hostile to Russian culture. Therefore, when assessing Peter’s reforms, Slavophiles see in them acts that pose a danger to the organicity and integrity of Russian life. Pre-Petrine Rus' possessed these qualities from the point of view of the Slavophiles.

The Slavophiles associated the future of Russia only with the common people, since the educated part of society was infected with Western rationalism and state absolutism. The Slavophiles declared three principles to be the sources of the health of the Russian people: Orthodoxy, nationality, and autocracy. The undistorted Orthodox faith and true nationality were preserved only in the peasantry. Being anti-statists, the Slavophiles defended the monarchy, since power seemed to them an absolute sin, an evil, and therefore the fewer people polluted by power, the more reason there is not to worry about the moral health of the people. Democratic government involves the people in evil, therefore it is less preferable than autocracy, where one person takes upon himself the sin political power. The Russian people have no desire for the formation of statehood; they have a different calling - religious, spiritual. Slavophiles believed that the Russian peasant, unlike the European, did not have the sin of possessiveness. This is due to the special way of Russian life - with the community.

The Slavophile camp included thinkers such as A.S. Khomyakov, I.V. Kireevsky, B.I. Kerimov. Their views were not united, they had different attitudes towards the nature of Russian culture and its place in history, but they were united by a critical attitude To Western European civilization, conviction in the fundamental uniqueness of Russian history and culture, a common Orthodox Christian cultural orientation, ardent defense of personal freedom, freedom of conscience, thought, speech.

Reflections on Russia's place in the world cultural process are just beginning in the polemics between Westerners and Slavophiles. The second half of the 19th century is marked by the rapid development of cultural thought, where the problem of Russian development is also studied by such thinkers as B.S. Soloviev, B.I. Chicherin, S.M. Soloviev, G.V. Lekhanov, N.Ya. Danilevsky.

Many philosophers and historians associate special hopes for the development of the world process with Russia, for example, for N.Ya. Danilevsky, it is the Slavic cultural-historical type that can link together four spheres of sociocultural life (religious, cultural, political, economic), which no other nation has ever succeeded in in the observable historical process. CM. Solovyov sees in Russia “a model of a Christian state”, a center of world development, V.S. Solovyov in the triad “East-West-Russia” believes that the features national character of the Russian people can transform Russian civilization from a national civilization to a universal civilization.

The spiritual atmosphere of Russia in the 19th century is imbued with faith in the special destiny of Russia, faith in the special path of the Russian people, whose spirituality and moral character should set an example of the creation of a new society, devoid of the shortcomings of the societies of the West and the East. This idea permeates Russian literature of the 19th century, which follows a painful search for the kingdom of love and truth.

Russian occupies a special place in the culture of the 19th century; literature, it was in Russian literature of the 19th century that the critical issues that tormented a person: questions of life and death, values human life, place and weight of spiritual life and universal human values. All questions of moral and political life are comprehended precisely in the artistic word. Literature acquires the status of a universal form of social consciousness. This gave writers special weight and special functions in society. The writer became a teacher of life; his opinion was not just the opinion of a private person, he shaped the minds of people, created ideals that the youth of that time tried to imitate.

The romantic idea of ​​transforming the world through art was closest to the great Russian writer. N.V. Gogol. The transformation of life can be achieved by pointing out to society its shortcomings, therefore “The Inspector General” and “Dead Souls” are a path that society should not take. From his pen come phantasmagoric, like Hoffmann’s, images of “dead souls.” But Gogol loses faith in the transformation of the world; he is disappointed in his work. “Selected passages from correspondence with friends,” which caused Belinsky’s indignation, is a search for ways to achieve better life, which is impossible without personal moral perfection. His preaching is based on the idea of ​​social Christianity. Gogol's theocratic utopia bears the stamp of religious and moral teaching, so inherent in the literature of the 19th century. The educated world appears to the writer as an authoritative society where serfdom still reigns, but if the appearance of utopias is no different from contemporary Russia, then the people who live in it are governed by virtuous governor-generals, and the lower strata are distinguished by humility and obedience . The essence of Gogol's idea is that it is Russia that is invested and recognized to bring brotherhood to people and should become an example of moral perfection for people all over the world. Gogol is the true bearer of Russian spirituality, for which it is so characteristic to seek the Kingdom of God on earth. Gogol lays the foundation for the religious and moral searches of Russian literature and its messianic ministry.

Dostoevsky said about Gogol that his works “press on the mind with the deepest, unbearable questions, and evoke the most restless thoughts in the Russian mind.”

40 Russian writers of the 19th century created world fame for Russian literature, which strives for the creative perfection of life, raises the problem of the social mission of art, and calls on the writer to serve the public cause with his words. All Russian literature is imbued with the quest for social truth. A special place in the galaxy of great lovers of truth is occupied by F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy. Both titans of Russian literature strove for social truth, sought the Kingdom of God on earth, since only social truth can enter into it. For them, the social theme is inseparable from the religious one.

A special sense of justice pushes Dostoevsky to the problem of theodicy. Is it possible to unite the all-good God and the world created on evil and suffering? In the novel The Brothers Karamazov, Ivan Karamazov is tormented by the problem of the price that can be paid for creating world harmony. Is it possible to build harmony by sacrificing innocent people? For Ivan, as for Dostoevsky, the answer is obvious: “The highest harmony is completely abandoned. It’s not worth the tears of even just one tortured child.”

The most intimate strings of the human soul, its heights of confluence attract the attention of the writer. The writer looks for the image of God in fallen man himself; no matter what vices a person is mired in, he is God’s creation. The last of men has absolute significance, but only because he is the likeness of God. Only faith allows people to preserve the human in themselves. Dostoevsky sees that out of unbelief grows the self-deification of man, this godless freedom results in inhumanity and cruelty, for which an individual human life is a trifle that can easily be sacrificed to the general welfare. This idea of ​​universal happiness turns into a bloodthirsty Moloch, who demands more and more human sacrifices in the name of a great idea.

No one has the right to dispose of someone else’s life, no matter how unnecessary and insignificant it may seem, nothing can justify murder - neither the high idea of ​​​​general welfare, nor the personal benefit or wealth of an individual. For Raskolnikov, the hero of the novel Crime and Punishment, doubting this truth leads to the destruction of his own soul.

Dostoevsky searches for the truth and finds it in the Russian people. The bourgeois world, capitalist relations do not carry the truth, therefore the writer opposes bourgeois relations, because satiety will not replace freedom of spirit. But revolutionary activity also appears to Dostoevsky as a denial of freedom and personality. Where freedom of spirit is renounced, the reign of the Antichrist begins. He sees this beginning both in authoritative Christianity and in authoritarian socialism. Violence should not be the path to global unity. “The Legend of the Grand Inquisitor” - but the writer’s brilliant clairvoyance about the grief and destruction brought by both authoritarian Catholicism and authoritarian communism and fascism, all totalitarian regimes. "The Legend of the Grand Inquisitor", "Demons", "Notes from the Underground" raise the terrible question of what the price of progress may be; if this progress leads to the construction of world harmony, where millions are happy, giving up individuality and freedom. All the kingdoms of the world are based on coercion and the denial of freedom of spirit.

Dostoevsky creates his own utopia, a theocratic utopia, in which the church completely absorbs the state and realizes the kingdom of freedom and love. For the writer, the question of reorganizing society lies not in the plane of politics or economics, but in the field of religion. The writer identifies three ways to resolve the issue of world harmony, of paradise, of paradise and the final triumph of good:

the first path is the achievement of harmony, paradise, life in goodness without freedom of choice, without world tragedy, without suffering, but also without creative work;

the second path is harmony, paradise, life in goodness at the pinnacle of earthly history, purchased at the cost of innumerable suffering and tears of all human generations doomed to death, turned into a means for the future lucky ones;

the third way is harmony, paradise, life in goodness, to which a person will come through freedom and suffering in a plan that will include everyone who has ever lived and suffered, i.e. but the Kingdom of God. Dostoevsky can only make the third decision about world harmony.

There has never been a writer in world literature who perceived social and moral conflicts so nakedly personally, with such emotional pain and, on the other hand, experienced his personal tragedies so universally, on a global scale, as F.M. Dostoevsky.

L.N. Tolstoy is a great truth-seeker, passionately and radically opposed to historical Christianity, the historical church, which adapts the covenants of Christ to the law of this world, replacing the Kingdom of God with the kingdom of Caesar.

Why does a person live, what is his purpose in this world? These questions torment the writer; he seeks answers to them in his treatises “Confession”, “What is my faith?”, “The Kingdom of God is within us”, “On Life”. People very often chase ghosts, false values, sparing neither their own nor others. Tolstoy believes that the life that a person wastes in the name of self-interest, career, and acquiring wealth is wasted in vain. People live without thinking about death; they roll on the skids of life, not noticing that they are flying into the abyss. They push each other, quarrel among themselves, without thinking about the meaning of everything that is happening. But it is difficult for a person to understand moral guidelines and values. And life teachers - writers, philosophers, cultural figures - are called upon to help in this difficult process of developing ideals, since it is their duty to society to show a person the way in his difficult path of moral choice.

In the treatise "What is my faith?" Tolstoy also wrote that a person should live in such a way that death could not disrupt life. To do this, you need to minimize your “bodily” life, your bodily needs. True life is a spiritual life, in goodness and moral perfection. If a person could not find the path from a mechanical and insignificant life to the life of the soul, then he will remain on the threshold of human life, never having crossed it.

For Tolstoy, the problem of death and immortality is connected with the problem of the meaning of life. Death is the destiny of lower consciousness. “Life in the body” ends with the death of the body. Overcoming death is associated with overcoming a life bound only by material needs. Death can only be overcome with the help of a deed of love, i.e. activities aimed at mercy and compassion. In the process of life, according to Tolstoy, a person goes through three stages of self-awareness: the first stage is vegetative, unconscious life, the second is individual life, realizing itself as a separate being, the third is divine, authentic life. The first stage is a life devoid of any spiritual interests. The second is living for pleasure and glory. Only the third stage is life in spiritual activity, work to improve oneself and the life around us. It is this life that Tolstoy calls “the solution to the mystery and the polar star for moving humanity, because it gives true good.” (“The Way of Life”)

Tolstoy connects the future of humanity with the growth of morality; lack of spirituality destroys life. Only a person’s self-improvement creates the conditions for a genuine change in the circumstances of life; without self-change, external changes are simply rearranging “without mortar, but in a new manner” a collapsing building made of rough stones. This idea permeates the entire Russian culture of the 19th century, calling for the moral perfection of humanity.

Conclusion

Serfdom, which kept the peasantry in darkness and downtroddenness, tsarist arbitrariness, suppressing any living thought, and the general economic backwardness of Russia in comparison with Western European countries hindered cultural progress. Despite these favorable conditions and even despite them, Russia in the 19th century. made a truly giant leap in the development of culture and made an enormous contribution to world culture. This rise of Russian culture was due to a number of factors. First of all, it was associated with the process of formation of the Russian nation in the critical era of transition from feudalism to capitalism, with the growth of national self-awareness and was its expression. Of great importance was the fact that the rise of Russian national culture coincided with the beginning of the revolutionary liberation movement in Russia.

An important factor that contributed to the intensive development of Russian culture was its close communication and interaction with other cultures. The world revolutionary process and advanced Western European social thought had a strong influence on Russian culture. This was the heyday of German classical philosophy and French utopian socialism, the ideas of which were widely popular in Russia.

Russian culture accepted the best achievements of the cultures of other countries and peoples, without losing its originality and, in turn, influencing the development of other cultures. For example, Russian religious thought left a significant mark on the history of European peoples. The rise of patriotism due to Patriotic War 1812 contributed not only to the growth of national self-awareness and the formation of Decembrism, but also to the development of Russian national culture. V. Belinsky wrote: “The year 1812, having shocked all of Russia, aroused the people’s consciousness and people’s pride.”

List of used literature

1. Gurevich P.S. Man and culture M.: “Bustard”, 1998.

2. Erasov B.S. Social cultural studies: In 2 parts. Part 1 - M.: JSC “Aspect Press”, 1994. – 384 p.

3. Cultural studies. Course of lectures ed. A.A. Rodugina Publishing house “Center” Moscow 1998

4. Culturology / Ed. A.N. Markova M., 1998

5. Levinas E. Philosophical definition of the idea of ​​culture. // Global problems and universal human values. – M.: Progress, 1990. - P.86-97

6. Polikarpov V.S. Lectures on cultural studies. M.: “Gardariki”, 1997. - 344 p.

Golden Age of Russian Literature

TO 19th century Russian literature has reached unprecedented heights of its development. The literary leap, the ground for which was prepared by the authors of the 17th and 18th centuries, gave Russian literature worldwide fame.

The 19th century is called the Golden Age of Russian literature. This popular expression originates in an article by critic and publicist M.A. Antonovich “Literary Crisis”, in which he praised the creativity of this period for the unity of aspirations and interests. And although in this same article, written in 1863, Antonovich refers to the literature of the period of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol and claims that in his days the “iron and even clay age” reigned in literature; the term “golden age” in literary criticism is applied to the entire 19th century.

Note 1

As literary critic V.B. argued. Kataev, “between the birth of Pushkin and the death of Chekhov, a whole century fit in, the golden age of Russian classical literature. They stand as if at the two ends of a single unbroken chain - at its beginning and at its end.”

The Golden Age of Russian literature began with the establishment of romanticism and sentimentalism, and ended with the dominance of realism and decadence.

Prose Writers of the Golden Age

The golden age of Russian prose literature was made up of classical writers.

Definition 1

Classical literature - all works of an era that are considered exemplary and set the canon of their genre.

The work of F.M. belongs to this era. Dostoevsky, I.A. Goncharova, N.V. Gogol, L.N. Tolstoy, M.E. Saltykova-Shchedrina, I.S. Turgeneva, A.P. Chekhova, A.S. Griboyedov and others. A classic of dramaturgy is A.N. Ostrovsky.

The development of Russian prose began with the works of Pushkin and Gogol, who created in their works types of heroes that were subsequently found in the works of other authors throughout the 19th century:

• “Little Man” is an image of an ordinary person who does not stand out for his social status, origin or character traits, but is always kind and harmless. The first “little man” was Samson Vyrin from Pushkin’s “The Station Agent”. No less famous is Akaki Bashmachkin, main character"Overcoats" by Gogol;
• “An extra person” is an image of a person who does not fit into society. An example of such a hero in Russian literature is Eugene Onegin from the novel of the same name in verse by A.S. Pushkin. The name of this type is taken from the work of I.S. Turgenev "Diary of an Extra Man".

European romanticism, whose representative was, for example, who inspired A.S., had a great influence on Russian literature of the 19th century. Pushkin, the English poet Byron, as well as the work of enlightenment writers (XVIII century).

Definition 2

Romanticism is a literary movement that was characterized by the depiction of an ideal world and a hero struggling with society.

From the Russian literary traditions of the 18th century, the Golden Age adopted journalisticism and a love of satire. Writers exposed the vices and shortcomings of their contemporary society and always kept their finger on the pulse. Therefore, when a crisis of serfdom arose in the Russian Empire and great contradictions arose between the people and the authorities, literature responded to these large-scale historical changes by changing the dominant direction. Around the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realism began.

Definition 3

Realism is a literary movement that objectively and truthfully reproduces the surrounding reality.

Socio-political issues, amazing accuracy and sincerity and subtle psychologism distinguished the works of Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Turgenev, Goncharov - writers who worked after the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The followers of these ideas were A.P. Chekhov and M. Gorky.

In addition to political ideas, the works of the authors of the Golden Age reflected eternal values ​​and highly moral ideas. Personal freedom was affirmed and attention was focused on moral problems.

At the end of the 19th century, when revolutionary ideas began to gain strength in the minds of Russians, realism gave way to decadence.

Definition 4

Decadence is a literary movement characterized by pessimistic, decadent views and lack of faith.

Some of the most significant works of the Golden Age are:

• “War and Peace” by Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy;
• “Crime and Punishment” and “The Idiot” by Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky;
• “Dead Souls” by Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol;
• “Hero of Our Time” by Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov;
• “Fathers and Sons” by Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev;
• “Woe from Wit” by Alexander Sergeevich Griboyedov;
• “Eugene Onegin” by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.

The Golden Age of Russian Poetry

The first third of the 19th century is considered the golden age of Russian poetry. The central figure here was A.S. Pushkin.

The poets of Pushkin's circle (1810 - 1830s) also belong to this era: E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.A. Bestuzhev, A.A. Delvig, V.A. Zhukovsky, I.A. Krylov, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.I. Odoevsky, K.F. Ryleev and others. There are 19 poets in total.

The golden age of Russian poetry ended with the work of F.I. Tyutchev and N.A. Nekrasova.

It is important to clarify that the concept of “poets of Pushkin’s era” is not only and not so much chronological, but rather ideological. Because, for example, M.Yu. Lermontov, also a contemporary of Pushkin, raised completely different issues in his works. In the ideology of the poets of Pushkin’s time, “the authenticity of mental life” was important. This poetry was very often connected with the socio-political life of the country (many of the listed poets were associated with the Decembrists).

This era was greatly influenced by the reform of the Russian literary language carried out by N.M. Karamzin. He refused to use the Church Slavonic language, using in his works only the means of the contemporary Russian language, but using French grammar as a model. Thanks to Karamzin’s work, many new words appeared in the Russian language, such as “falling in love”, “responsibility”, “humane” and others.

Note 2

Supporters of the Karamzin reform united in the closed literary society "Arzamas", which fought against outdated traditions.

An equally strong impetus for the development of the Russian literary language was the work of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, whose novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was recognized as nothing less than an “encyclopedia of Russian life.” For many poets and writers, it was Pushkin who became a teacher and mentor; his ideas were continued in the works of other generations of writers.

The poets of the Golden Age wrote works about love and nature, imbued with philosophical reflections. It was in the 19th century that writers, and especially poets, established the status of prophets, enlightening and teaching their readers.

The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.

But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.

A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920. And his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin’s “The Bronze Horseman” (1833), “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”, and “The Gypsies” ushered in the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem “Mtsyri”, the poetic story “Demon”, and many romantic poems are known. It is interesting that Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the socio-political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets called on the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin “The Prophet”, ode “Liberty”, “Poet and the Crowd”, poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “On the Death of a Poet” and many others.

Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers at the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, the translations of which were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story “ Captain's daughter", where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a colossal amount of work exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was aimed at those in power.

A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”.

Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism is felt). The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict vices and shortcomings Russian society- a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol “The Nose”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, “The History of a City”.

Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the ways historical development Russia.

Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.

The development of poetry subsides somewhat. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who can live well in Rus'? ", as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people.

The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N.S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of the small literary genre - the story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.

The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the distinctive features of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

Literature and history Minister of Education Sergei Semenovich Uvarov 1. Why do you think Count Uvarov hated Russian literature so much? 2.Illustrate these ideas with examples from the works of writers. “If I manage to strangle Russian literature, I will sleep peacefully.”

Literature and history E. Delacroix “Liberty leading the people” 1789 - The Great French Bourgeois Revolution New revolutionary sentiments led to the emergence of interest in depiction in literature inner world person, his emotional experiences. A new literary direction is emerging - sentimentalism.

Literature and history Fragment of the diorama “Defense of Sevastopol” – Crimean War For the first time in literature, human psychology in war is depicted, the realistic principle of reflecting life is further developed, and the theme of the people is developed.

Literature and history Manifesto published by Tsar Alexander II in 1861 - abolition of serfdom in Russia abolition of serfdom in Russia Literature is becoming more and more social in its issues, developing the theme of the “little man”.

Russian culture of the 19th century. science painting literature music theater journalism “It was an amazing time, a time when everyone wanted to think, read, study... The impulse was strong and the tasks were enormous... This tempting work attracted everyone... gifted and capable people and brought forward a lot of publicists, writers, scientists, artists, musicians..." N.G. Chernyshevsky

The topic of our lesson today is the “golden age” of Russian culture. To do this, we will understand what period of Russian culture is meant and why it is called “golden”. Let's find out the history of origin this concept and features of its development.

Topic: Russian literature of the 19th century

Lesson:Golden Age of Russian Culture

The concept of “golden age” is metaphorical, and to understand the meaning of this metaphor, you need to remember where it came from direct meaning. It will take us to antiquity, to antiquity, to greek mythology, where the idea of ​​the “golden age” arose as a special state of life of people and gods, when they lived in harmony. These mythological ideas were recorded by ancient authors. First of all, we are talking about the Greek poet Hesiod

and his poem “Works and Days,” in which he speaks only about the generation of people created by the gods. This was the time when Kronos, or Chronos in the Greek tradition, and in the Roman tradition, Satur, created a special kind of “golden people”. Much later, the Roman poet Virgil

in the poem “Aeneid” he will use exactly this expression - “golden age”, meaning now not the qualities of people, but the quality of time. His contemporary Ovid

in the poem “The Science of Love” he ironically recalls the “golden age”, saying that nowadays we have to pay for everything in gold, because we live in the “golden age”.

Over time, it was Roman literature that began to be called “golden”. The heyday of Roman culture in the 1st century BC. was called the “golden age” of Roman culture and literature and was associated with several phenomena. On the one hand, with the problem of the Latin language, which at that time acquired the special quality of its classical completeness. Something similar will happen in Russian literature of the early 19th century. On the other hand, it was an era of special patronage of the sciences and arts. First Roman Emperor Octavian Augustus

supported writers: Horace, Virgil - in a special way creating favorable conditions for the development of literature and culture.

When we talk about Russian culture at the beginning of the 19th century, it is reasonable to recall that Herzen,

reflecting on the uniqueness of the historical path of Russian culture, which it passed from the time of Peter’s reforms to the beginning of the 19th century, with his characteristic beauty of expressions, he will note that Russia will respond to Peter’s call for education a hundred years later with the genius of Pushkin. And in this sense, indeed, what we call the “golden age” of Russian culture begins with the first decades of the 19th century and, perhaps, was most clearly manifested in the completeness of the ensemble of the northern capital, St. Petersburg. It was at this time that St. Petersburg acquired that classic look that we remember, first of all, from Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin.” And indeed, the architect Zakharov

builds the Admiralty building,

Rice. 7. Admiralty building in St. Petersburg ()

from which the central avenues of St. Petersburg depart.

About the classical century in the history of Russian culture, which is also commonly called the St. Petersburg part of its history. And it’s not at all accidental. After all, the city of St. Petersburg itself will be at the center of events with very little great history, because its foundation dates back to the beginning of the 18th century. In the construction of St. Petersburg in the 18th century, the predominant architectural style was the Baroque style. So, the Peter and Paul Cathedral is being built

Rice. 8. Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg ()

Rice. 10. Francesco Rastrelli ()

builds the Winter Palace,

Rice. 11. Winter Palace in St. Petersburg ()

Catherine Palace.

Rice. 12. Catherine Palace in St. Petersburg ()

But by the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, the very idea of ​​Russia as an empire begins to be emphasized by the assertion of another architectural style- classicism. And if in literature Russian classicism was most clearly expressed in the middle of the 18th century, then in architecture and painting this style would reveal its most significant achievements precisely at the beginning of the 19th century, on the one hand. On the other hand, it will complete the architectural organization of St. Petersburg. Indeed, in this sense, there is reason to recall the construction of the Admiralty, built by the architect Zakharov. It turned out to be a certain point from which the main avenues of St. Petersburg radiate in different directions, and first of all, Nevsky, where in the first quarter of the 19th century the Kazan Cathedral completed its design,

Rice. 13. Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg ()

built by architect Voronikhin,

moreover, according to the model of Rome, in this case, according to the model of Peter’s Council,

Rice. 15. Peter's Basilica in Rome

built by Michelangelo.

Rice. 16. Buonarroti Michelangelo ()

And again ancient, Roman associations arise. Of course, the final registration of Vasilyevsky Island requires special discussion

Rice. 17. Vasilyevsky Island in St. Petersburg ()

with the construction of an exchange building on it, which was supposed to balance the water and island spaces. For this, the same ancient Greek style is chosen: the stock exchange is built in the style of an ancient temple. And finally, a special topic is the work of the architect Carl Rossi, who had an amazing opportunity to build not individual buildings, as was usual, but to build entire urban ensembles, in the styles of which the same classicism prevails. Indispensable porticoes, columns, arches, indispensable proportionality, harmony of architectural parts. In a word, the very thing that was imperceptibly reflected not only in architecture, but also in literature. Because just at this time, precisely this tendency will prevail in the formation of the Russian literary poetic language: the desire for clarity, for harmonious accuracy, completeness. And in this regard, we really find a sign of this classical direction, style.

French architect Thomas de Thomon

builds the stock exchange building in the form of a huge ancient temple.

Rice. 19. Exchange building in St. Petersburg ()

builds its famous ensembles: Alexandria Theater

Rice. 21. Alexandria Theater in St. Petersburg ()

with the famous Rossi Street,

Rice. 22. Rossi Street in St. Petersburg ()

Mikhailovsky Castle,

Rice. 23. Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg ()

Rice. 24. Synod building in St. Petersburg ()

And all this will be architecture built in the style of classicism, which makes us remember the Greco-Roman tradition. And in this regard, indeed, there was a feeling that, at a minimum, St. Petersburg was turning into some semblance of the Roman Empire before our eyes. There is also reason to recall that at the same time it was not only a city associated with the imperial theme. After all, with the ability to build not individual houses, but entire architectural ensembles, St. Petersburg turned into a kind of work of art. And then another association arose: northern Athens, if we mean Greece as a certain symbol associated with the theme of art, philosophy, science and culture. It should be noted that the established Academy of Arts

Rice. 25. Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg ()

guided both architects and artists to recreate the classical style. It is worth remembering such personalities as Karl Bryullov,

if we keep in mind the creators of the grandiose canvases: “The Last Day of Pompeii”,

Rice. 28. “The Last Day of Pompeii” ()

Rice. 29. “The Appearance of Christ to the People” ()

More modest portrait painters Orest Kiprensky,

Vasily Tropinin.

If we talk about the development of painting in this era of the “golden age,” then there is reason to pay attention to the grandeur of our painters’ plans and cultural density. Because these pictorial ideas exert their influence and semantic pressure on other authors, writers for example. In this sense, it is worthy of special note that the outstanding masterpieces of, say, Karl Bryullov’s “The Last Day of Pompeii” are not only a grandiose canvas in itself, executed in a brilliant classicist manner with precision of depiction, skill, and extraordinary subtlety. The “Golden Age” is golden not only because the authors here achieve maximum perfection of form, but also differ in the depth of their ideas. So, looking at this canvas, Gogol thinks about what today’s writer needs as a plot, an idea of ​​such an order that it captures everyone. Because Bryullov’s picture was made in such a way that the exploding Vesuvius terrifies a huge number of people. And this very fear, which simultaneously unites people and forces them to act as a single force, turned out to be extremely important for Gogol’s “The Inspector General”,

Rice. 32. Comedy “The Inspector General” by Nikolai Gogol ()

After all, there is no love intrigue, but everything is tied to the fear of the heroes. But, for example, Ivanov’s painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People” carried a mystical connotation, because despite its enormity, the viewer found himself included in the picture itself, and Christ seemed to really be coming towards you, which absolutely accompanies Gogol’s other brilliant idea: “The Dead souls."

Rice. 33. Poem “Dead Souls” by Nikolai Gogol ()

According to the author’s plan, this was a book that was supposed to turn all of us “dead” souls into people with “alive” souls. Therefore, the grandeur of these ideas, which arise among both painters and writers, in their interaction is one of the features of the “golden age”.

And if we keep in mind musical culture, then it is impossible not to recall the brilliant work of Mikhail Glinka.

When we look at this layer of Russian culture associated with architecture and painting, these classicist Greco-Roman traditions are not only palpable here, they here acquire their classical character, completing the very idea of ​​​​an open window to Europe that Peter dreamed of.

On the other hand, it is easy to notice that these authors and architects in the future will be perceived as the creators of national styles in one form or another of art. And therefore it is not at all surprising that in 1825 Pushkin’s close friend Pyotr Pletnev,

the famous poet, literary critic, teacher of Russian literature, rector of St. Petersburg University, in one of the articles published in Delvig’s almanac “Northern Flowers”, will write a short review related to the development of Russian poetry over the past decades, recalling the work of Zhukovsky,

Batyushkova

Rice. 38. Konstantin Batyushkov ()

and ending with a conversation about the brilliant Pushkin,

Rice. 39. Alexander Pushkin

who, according to the author of the article, “is the first poet of the “golden age” of our literature (if it is absolutely necessary that each literature have its own “golden age”).” Pletnev, of course, has in mind the very “golden age” of Roman literature, therefore, in the environment in which St. Petersburg writers and cultural figures found themselves at the beginning of the 19th century, this feeling of closeness to the Roman classical tradition of its golden age was quite understandable and obvious.

But much later, already in the 30s of the 20th century, in Paris, the Russian poet and emigrant Nikolai Otsup

will write an article dedicated to the “Silver Age” in the history of Russian culture and literature, in which he will try to outline the line that arose between the “Golden” and “Silver Age” of literature. He started from the thoughts of the French writer and essayist Paul Valéry,

discussing the uniqueness of Russian literature of the 20th century. He was amazed by the huge number of talents that amazingly shone in the 19th century, meaning the “peak” authors and their “peak” achievements: Pushkin, Gogol, Lermontov, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky.

He compared this miracle of Russian art with what once happened in the development of ancient theater, when literally in a century three playwrights created the entire European dramatic tradition. He compared this era with the Renaissance, with its titans. And so Nikolai Otsup, thinking about the same thing, collects all Russian literature in its world context in the “golden age”. But he discovers the border separating the 19th century from the future modernist 20th century somewhere in the 80s of the 19th century. Thus, indeed, a broader idea of ​​the “golden age” of Russian literature arose, which includes an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe entire literature of the 19th century.

In the end, we can say that there is a narrow, more specific and historically justified idea of ​​​​the “golden age”, which is associated with Russian culture and literature of the first quarter of the 19th century. That time that went down in the history of Russian culture as Pushkin’s time. And this, on the one hand, is an era that is largely structured as a summing up of the entire previous 18th century. On the other hand, it is important here as the era of the formation of national traditions and schools, because we habitually call Pushkin the founder of the Russian literary language and new Russian literature. We traditionally call Glinka, a contemporary of Pushkin, the founder of Russian music and the founder of the national school of composers.

But when this “golden age” is understood in an expanded sense, then, of course, we have to remember the entire 19th century and include not only the Pushkin era, but also Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, and Chekhov. And then it becomes clear that this is a kind of result of the “golden age” in the sense that this Russian culture and literature takes on the character of its sound. These are not only national achievements, but the entry of Russian culture onto the world stage.

The subsequent era, the era of Decadence, the era of Art Nouveau, puts a definite boundary between the emerging classical tradition of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.

On the other hand, in a narrow sense, since we are still talking about the Pushkin era, the golden age of Russian literature that really sounded for the first time was primarily associated with the poets of the early 19th century, and, if we recall Pletnev, we are talking about the poetry of Konstantin Batyushkov, Vasily Zhukovsky, Alexander Pushkin, then we with some obviousness discover a certain kind of ring composition associated with a strange outbreak of poetry at the beginning of the 19th century on the one hand and no less strange in scale, in the volume of talents, in the number of poets, which seemed to suddenly happen at the end XIX at the beginning of the XX century. In this sense, the “golden” and “silver” centuries of Russian poetry fit quite symmetrically into the beginning of the 20th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, because in the middle we will find Russian prose, where indeed the formation of Russian realism in the middle of the 19th century will be associated somewhat with poetry, how much with prose. Although almost exactly in the middle of the century (in the mid-50s) three collections of three amazing poets will be published: this will be the first collection of Nekrasov,

this will be Tyutchev's first large collection

Rice. 48. Fyodor Tyutchev

and Fet's collection.

And indeed, it turns out that these three authors find themselves exactly in the middle, between the “golden” poetic age of Russian literature and the “silver” one. And they will turn out to be authors who will in a special way connect these two poetic centuries, the two heydays of Russian poetry.

There is reason to recall that, in fact, the history of Russian poetry draws its origins from the 18th century. In the 30s of the 18th century, thanks to the efforts of Lomonosov,

Trediakovsky,

Rice. 51. Vasily Trediakovsky ()

a little later at Sumarokov's

Rice. 52. Alexander Sumarokov ()

A special system of versification will arise: classical, so-called syllabic-tonic. And by the end of the 18th century, what is commonly called “noble culture” will achieve special development. Moreover, here we are not necessarily talking about some of its higher manifestations, but at the everyday level. It will be customary to write poetry, compose music, and not in order to necessarily publish it or to be wonderful writers. This will be a household culture. One can recall the “ladies' albums” in which gentlemen were required to write poems for the ladies. And it was precisely in this phase of highly cultural amateurism that the highest level of poetic verse that would emerge through the efforts of the poets of the early 19th century could grow.

1. Sakharov V.I., Zinin S.A. Russian language and literature. Literature (basic and advanced levels) 10. M.: Russian Word.

2. Arkhangelsky A.N. and others. Russian language and literature. Literature (advanced level) 10. M.: Bustard.

3. Lanin B.A., Ustinova L.Yu., Shamchikova V.M. / ed. Lanina B.A. Russian language and literature. Literature (basic and advanced levels) 10. M.: VENTANA-GRAF.

1. Analyze the work of poets and writers of the “golden age” of Russian culture. Using the example of several works, show the characteristics characteristic of this period.

2. Prepare a report on the meaning and influence of the “golden age” of Russian culture for the modern period.

3. * Make a comparative table of all directions of the “golden age” of Russian culture. Find commonalities.