Strengthening royal power in France and England. Strengthening royal power Learning new material
Lesson on the history of the Middle Ages in 6th grade on the topic: “Strengthening royal power V XV century in France and England" .
Goals: Create conditions for the formation of ideas about the final stage of the formation of centralized states in France and England.
Tasks: identify the distinctive features of this process in each of these countries and summarize existing knowledge on this issue; introduce the concepts of a centralized state and absolutism.
Equipment : computer, presentation, homework test (2 options)
Board design: topic of the lesson, date of the War of the Roses (1455 – 1485)
During the classes.
1. Org. start of the lesson.
Hello guys! Sit down. Glad to see you at our lesson today! Check if you have everything ready for fruitful work in class: textbook, notebook, writing materials, diary and your bright heads. I hope that today in class you will not be embarrassed by the presence of guests, and that you will work as actively and fruitfully as you do in all our lessons.
- (student’s name) please tell me who is absent today!? It's a pity. I hope that those who are absent will definitely learn about the material we covered today and learn about their homework.
And now I would like to voice the goals, objectives and plan of our lesson (list the goals, objectives of the lesson and work plan).
Lesson plan:
1.Completion of the unification of France.
2. France is a centralized state.
3. The War of the Roses in England.
4. Reign of Henry VII.
2. Checking homework:
Before we start studying new material, we need to check how you have mastered the previous material “Peasant uprisings in France and England.” Therefore, I suggest you complete the test tasks.
Take the files that are on the edges of your desks and take out the sheet of dough from them. The test consists of two options. Each test option is already signed. All you have to do is sign the sheets, indicate your initials, class and date.
Remember that you need to work actively and read the assignments correctly.
To complete the work I give you 7 minutes. Time has passed.
(Keep track of the time. 1 minute before the end of time, announce the end of work) 1) testing:
Option #1.
1. What was the situation of the French people in the 14th century?
A) the plague epidemic claimed many lives
B) the amount of tax paid has decreased
C) the welfare of peasants has improved;
2. When did the uprising called the Jacquerie break out in France?
A) April 1332
B) September 1346
B) May 1358
3. The leader of the “Zhak” uprising was:
A) Guillaume Cal
B) Wat Tyler
B) Karl the Bold
4. Why did the Jacquerie fail? (choose multiple answer options)
A) spontaneity and disorganization
B) distrust of the leader
B) fragmentation of units
D) poor weapons
D) lack of material interest
E) mismanagement
5. The consequences of this uprising can be considered:
A) the peasants’ faith in themselves
B) accelerating the process of liberating peasants from personal dependence
C) the process of even greater enslavement of the peasants
6. One of the reasons for the uprising in England can be considered:
A) enslavement of peasants
B) introduction of a cash tax
B) cruel treatment of lords towards peasants
7. The peasant uprising in England began in:
Option number 2.
1. The peasant uprising in England was led by:
A) John Ball
B) Guillaume Cal
B) Wat Tyler
2. Who was not a participant in this uprising?
A) urban poor
B) noble lords
B) rural artisans
3. What demand did the rebels not make?
A) confiscate church lands
B) grant freedom to all addicts
B) cancel the cash tax
4. The reasons for the defeat of the uprising in England can be considered: (select several answer options)
A) lack of a talented leader
B) poor organization
C) the rebels have poor weapons
D) disunity of the rebels
5. Bottom line peasant uprising in England we can consider:
A) strengthening reactionary laws against the poor
B) peasants were given the opportunity to buy their freedom
C) increasing already heavy taxes
6. How did the gentlemen deal with the rebels?
A) hanged traitors
B) executed the guilty
C) all the rebels were put in prison
7. What lesson did the English king learn from this uprising?
A) you need to increase your influence
B) laws against the poor were relaxed
C) there was a strong enslavement of the peasants
Time is up.
Put down your pens, pick up your pencils, and exchange ideas with your neighbor.
Now we will perform a mutual check with subsequent grading.
You can see the grading criteria on the board.
Criteria for evaluation:
Less than 3 – “2”
From 3 to 5 – “3”
From 5 to 6 – “4”
Key:
I'm going to work I give you 2 minutes.
Guys, time is up.
One of the group collects the tests and places them on the edge of the table.
Learning new material.
Guys, let's start studying a new topic. Open your workbooks. The topic of our lesson is “Strengthening royal power at the end of the 15th centuries in France and England.” Please write it down in your notebook. (Slide No. 1) (1 minute)
In previous lessons, we talked to you about the fact that France fought wars: it was the Hundred Years' War with England, and the peasant uprising led by Guillaume Cal.
But the war is over, and peaceful life is gradually beginning to improve.
King Louis XI continued to unify the country. Today we will find out how and when the unification of France and England took place, how a centralized state was formed, and what form of government was established in these states.
1. Completion of the unification of France
After the end of the war, things gradually began to improve in France. life. This is expressed in:
1) lands desolate during the war begin to plow up
2) cities and villages are being restored
3) an indicator of a successfully restored economy can be considered the fact that in productive years France now exported grain to neighboring countries.
4) craft is being restored
5) production of fabrics and glass begins
6) fairs begin to appear.
(Slide No. 2)
During the reign of King Louis XI in France, large feudal lords united in a secret alliance, the soul of which was the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold.
Now I invite you to get to know these two people better.
Today in the lesson you are united in groups consisting of 4 people. Now each of you will take the remaining sheet from the file. This sheet presents you with excerpts from the book of the French writer De Commines “Memoirs” about two political figures Louis XI and Charles the Bold.
While completing the task, you are allowed to quietly discuss the answers to the questions posed in a group and write down the answers on the sheets with the document.
To complete the task you are given 5 minutes.
Guys, the time is up and now together with you we will answer the questions posed.
(The teacher reads out the questions. Asks: “Would anyone like to answer the question!?)
How did you imagine King Louis XI?
In what ways did he seek to strengthen his power? (bribery, gave positions, was interested in strong people)
What class did the king rely on? (to medium) and why?
What personality traits of Karl the Bold did you learn about? (purposeful, cunning, deceitful, practical, patient, calculating, stingy)
What does the expression “laws of knightly honor” mean?
Which class did the Duke of Burgundy rely on and why? (on noble feudal lords who could resist the king)
« F. De Commines « Memoirs»
“Of all those whom I have ever known, the one best able to extricate himself from trouble and adversity was King Louis XI, our master, the most humble in dress and in words. He tried very hard to bribe anyone who could serve him or harm him. He was not at all annoyed if the person he wanted to win over refused him, but continued his efforts, making generous promises and in fact granting him money and such distinctions as he knew he would like. Those whom he expelled and rejected in times of peace and prosperity, he, if necessary, again bribed at a high price, used them and did not feel any enmity for the past. Quite naturally, he was the friend of the middle class people and the enemy of all the “nobles” who could do without him. No one has ever listened to so many people, asked about so many things as he did, no one wanted to know as many people as he did, he thoroughly knew all the significant and powerful people in England, Spain, Portugal, Italy, as well as the lands of Burgundy and Brittany.”
Born in Dijon in the family of the Burgundian Duke Philip the Good and the Portuguese Infanta Isabella. From early youth he was passionately involved in knightly games and military exercises; received a good education, so I had no difficulty reading Latin writers. Already as a 19-year-old boy, in the battle of Haveren, he showed that stubborn courage, reaching the point of recklessness, which remained the main feature of his character throughout his life. He lived simply, shunning the luxury and red tape that reigned at his father's court. All his life he tried to live by the laws of knightly honor. He despised intrigue, deceit, and pretense, but at the same time he was brave, arrogant and stubborn.
Well done, you did a good job. The most active participants in our conversation receive additional points, which will be taken into account when checking the correctness of grading your test and in the following lessons when grading.
Physical exercise (2 minutes)
1. Gently lower your head down, reaching your chin to your chest. Then move your head back and stretch the back of your head towards your shoulder blades, stretching the front surface of your neck. As you exhale, the head drops forward, and as you inhale, it falls back. (Repeat 2 times)
2. Tilt your head to the right, reaching your ear to your shoulder. Move your head to the left. Moving the head from one side to the other is accompanied by breathing. As you exhale, tilt your head, while inhaling, lift your head to the central position and, as you exhale, lower it to the other side. (Repeat 2 times)
3. Stretch your arms in front of you and dynamically rotate your hands in different directions.
The struggle between Louis XI and Charles the Bold lasted 12 years. In open war, the king was defeated and was forced to conclude a humiliating peace. Then Louis XI set his dissatisfied neighbors against Charles the Bold. In the war with them, the army of the Duke of Burgundy was defeated, and he himself was killed. The king then dealt with the remaining opponents one by one. Louis XI kept those who fell into his hands for many years in iron cages, where the prisoners could not even stand upright.
working with a map (Working from place)
(Slide No. 3) map from 181 textbook
Find the map on page 181.
Look at it and tell me what color are the king’s possessions? What can you say about its territory?
What can you say about the vassals' domains?
What territories were annexed to the king's domain by the end of the 15th century? What color are they indicated by?
Most of the duchy of Burgundy went to the king. The southern region of Provence with the city of Marseille was also annexed to France. Only the Duchy of Brittany became part of the royal possessions under the successors of Louis XI. By the end of the 15th century, the unification of France was completed.
We write down in our notebooks: The unification of France was completed by the end of the 15th century. (1 minute)
2. France is a centralized state.
The process of unification of the country went in parallel with the strengthening of royal power. What facts indicate this?
Even after the Hundred Years' War, the king replaced the detachments of vassals with a permanent army of knights and mercenaries, i.e. created a standing army, in order to maintain a standing army you need money. Where can I get them? Therefore, the king created an annual tax from the entire country, the king himself decided state affairs, declared war and made peace, issued laws, judged his subjects (even joked that he carries all his advisers in the saddle of his horse)
Having money and a permanent army, the king no longer needed the Estates General. Therefore, during the years of his reign, he convened them only once.
- So we see that by the endXV century, France was subordinated to a single centralized power - the power of the king. Accordingly, by the endXV century, a centralized state was formed in France.(We write in the notebook: “A centralized state was formed in France)
(Slide No. 4)
This definition is presented on the slide, copy it in your notebook .(1 minute)
Centralized is called a state that is governed from one center, there are common governing bodies, laws, taxes and a standing army.
We make a subtitle in the notebook: “Unification of England.”
4. The War of the Roses in England.
We learned how the strengthening of royal power took place in France, and now we will get acquainted with how this process took place in England.
Two years after the Hundred Years' War, a civil war began in England that lasted 30 years. The feudal lords were divided into two warring groups: each supported one of the branches of the Plantagenet dynasty - Lancaster or York, who fought for the throne. Since the Lancastrian coat of arms featured a scarlet rose, and the York coat of arms a white one, the war was called The War of the Scarlet and White Roses (1455-1485). (Slide No. 5)
- Write it down write the date in your notebook (on the slide)
This fight was very brutal. The winners mercilessly chopped off the heads of their opponents. Relatives of the victims took revenge on the families of their enemies, even killing children. Unlike an ordinary feudal war, in which opponents tried to capture as many prisoners as possible for ransom, here the main goal was to destroy the opponents. (Slide No. 6)
The war ended after almost all the nobles killed each other. A distant relative of the Lancastrians, Henry Tudor, entered the fight for the throne. Having won the last battle, Henry married the daughter of a king from the York dynasty and combined scarlet and white roses. With him, the reign of the Tudor dynasty began in England. 5. Reign of Henry Tudor.
What did Henry do when he came to power?
2) fought against rebellious feudal lords
3) replenished the treasury different ways(a fine from noble feudal lords, collected taxes from the population even in peacetime)
4) Parliament met only 2 times
5) distributed lands and titles to his supporters
Thus, absolutism was established in England. (Slide No. 7)
- Let's write down the definition :
Absolutism- a form of government in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power.
Like any form of government, absolutism also has its own distinctive features. Let's find out which ones. Pay attention to the slide .
Main features of absolutism : (Ask one student at a time) Slide number 8
1) creation of an apparatus of officials
2) creation of a standing army
3) absence of estate representative bodies
Guys, please copy the material from the slide into your notebook. I give you for this task 1 minute.
Fixing the material
And now I want to know how carefully you worked in class and whether you understood the new material. You have colored circles in your files, take them and lay them out in front of you.
Now I will ask you questions, and you raise one of the circles: if you agree with my statement, you raise the green circle, if you don’t agree, then the red one. So, everything is clear to everyone!? (green circle)
A centralized state is a state that is governed from one center and has unified governing bodies, laws, taxes and a standing army. (green circle)
Absolutism established in France (red circle)
Absolutism is a form of government in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power (green circle)
4. What colors of roses were depicted on the coats of arms of the warring dynasties - green and black? (red circle)
6. Reflection.(Working with circles)
At the end of our lesson, I would like to ask you what you think:
1. Have we achieved our goals and objectives? (If “yes”, then raise the green circle, if “no”, raise the red circle, if suddenly you are in doubt about the choice of one answer or another, raise the yellow circle)
2. Do you understand everything about the topic covered? (similar answers to the question)
7. Grading. Guys, today you all received marks on the test, I will announce them to you in the next lesson. Separately, I would like to highlight the answers (name the names of the most actively responding when working with documents, with a map). I will add points to your test or when grading in future lessons.
8. Homework : (Slide No. 9)
Left a reply Guest
Supreme political power under an absolute monarchy, everything goes to the king and is not shared with any government agencies. To do this, the kings needed to overcome the political opposition of the feudal oligarchy and the Catholic Church, eliminate class-representative institutions, create a centralized bureaucratic apparatus, a standing army, and police. Already in the 16th century. The Estates General practically cease to function. In 1614 they convened for the last time; they were soon dissolved and did not meet again until 1789. For some time, the king gathered notables (feudal nobility) to consider projects of important reforms and resolve financial issues. In the 16th century (according to the Bologna Concordat of 1516 and the Edict of Nantes of 1598) the king completely subjugated Catholic Church in France. As a kind of political opposition to royal power in the 16th-17th centuries. The Parisian Parliament spoke, which by this time had become a stronghold of the feudal nobility and repeatedly used its right of remonstration and rejected royal acts. The Royal Ordinance in 1667 established that remonstration could only be declared within a certain period after the king issued the order, and repeated remonstration was not allowed. In 1668, King Louis XIV, appearing at the Paris Parliament, personally removed from its archives all the protocols relating to the period of the Fronde, i.e. to the anti-absolutist protests of the mid-17th century. In 1673, he also decided that parliament did not have the right to refuse registration of royal acts, and remonstration could only be declared separately. In practice, this deprived Parliament of its most important prerogative - to protest and reject royal legislation. The general idea of the power of the king and the nature of his specific powers also changed. In 1614, at the proposal of the States General, the French monarchy was declared divine, and the power of the king began to be regarded as sacred. A new official title for the king was introduced: “king by the grace of God.” The ideas about the sovereignty and unlimited power of the king are finally established. Increasingly, the state begins to be identified with the personality of the king, which found its extreme expression in the statement attributed to Louis XIV: “The State is me!” The idea that absolutism was based on divine right did not mean the perception of the idea of the personal power of the king, much less identifying it with despotism . Royal prerogatives did not go beyond the legal order, and it was believed that “the king works for the State.” In general, French absolutism was based on the concept of an inextricable connection between the king and the state, the absorption of the former by the latter. It was believed that the king himself, his property, his family belonged to the French state and nation. Legally, the king was recognized as the source of any power that was not subject to any control. This, in particular, led to the consolidation complete freedom king in the field of legislation. Under absolutism, legislative power belongs to him alone according to the principle: “one king, one law.” The king had the right of appointment to any state and church position, although this right could be delegated to lower officials. He was the final authority in all matters of government. The king made the most important foreign policy decisions, determined the economic policy of the state, established taxes, and acted as the highest manager of state funds. Judicial power was exercised on his behalf.
The foundation of a centralized state in England was laid by the Norman Conquest. William the Conqueror confiscated lands from a significant part of the Anglo-Saxon nobility and transferred them as fiefs to his associates. But their lands did not represent compact possessions, but were scattered throughout the country. In addition, all feudal lords, both large and small, were declared direct vassals of the king and had to pay him homage. The king retained huge domain possessions, which amounted to about a seventh of all cultivated land in the country. The entire territory of the state was controlled by the king through sheriffs, royal officials who had mainly administrative and fiscal powers (powers to collect taxes).
Further strengthening of royal power in England was associated with the reforms of King Henry II. As a result of the military reform, the compulsory service of the king’s vassals for their feud was replaced by “shield money,” which made it possible for the king to maintain mercenary troops that obeyed him unquestioningly. Judicial reform expanded the powers of the royal court: the king's traveling judges could conduct cases on criminal offenses, and cases related to land ownership, for a certain fee, could be tried in the royal court with the participation of jurors. According to the forest reform, all forests in England were declared the property of the king.
Thus, by the end of the 12th century. in England the main features of a centralized state were formed.
Royalty under the Capetian dynasty
In France, royal power in the 10th century. was extremely weak. After the death in 987 of the last representative of the Carolingian dynasty, Louis V the Lazy, the French nobility elected the Count of Paris as the new king of France. Hugo Capeta, who became the founder of the new French royal dynasty - Capetian. However, in fact, only the royal domain, located between Paris and Orleans (Ile-de-France), was subordinate to him. But even on the territory of the domain, there were possessions of small vassals of the king, who behaved very independently and often showed their disobedience to the king.
However, compared to his vassals, even the most powerful ones, the king had a number of significant advantages. He was a suzerain, due to which he had the right to confiscate the fief if the holder did not fulfill his vassal obligations, the preemptive right to buy the fief, as well as the right to annex fiefs left without heirs to his domain. To expand their domain lands, the Capetians actively used marriage policy: they sought to marry their sons to heiresses of large feudal estates. The king, having undergone the coronation ceremony, became a sovereign, that is, a ruler towering above all feudal system, since his power was sanctified by the Divine will.
Coronation Rite
Capetians, starting with the second representative of this dynasty Robert II the Pious(996-1081), developed a complex, carefully thought-out coronation rite, aimed at emphasizing the sacred nature of their power. They were crowned only in Reims, the city where Clovis was baptized, and the sacred oil - myrrh - for the coronation was taken from a special bottle, brought, according to legend, from heaven by a dove during Clovis's baptism. Therefore, the ritual of anointing the king gave the king special qualities in the eyes of the people that distinguished him from mere mortals. So, according to legend, the king, by laying on his hands, could heal dangerous diseases, for example, scrofula.
Strengthening royal power in the XII-XV centuries
Skillfully using all their advantages, the French kings, starting with Louis VI Tolstoy(1108-1137), steadily strengthened their power and by the beginning of the 14th century. took it to a whole new level.
Under Philip II (1180-1223), the position of judge (bagli) was introduced, who had investigative powers in the territory of the royal domain.
At Louis IX Saint(1226-1270) the territory of the domain, which expanded sharply in previous years due to the confiscation of a number of English possessions and lands of the County of Toulouse, was divided into administrative districts - balyages. From that time on, the bailiffs carried out legal proceedings on behalf of the king, collected taxes and monitored the execution of royal decrees. Louis IX the Saint introduced a unified monetary system in the domain. Material from the site
By the time of the reign Philip IVBeautiful(1285-1314) the territory of the domain was three-quarters of the kingdom. At this time, the king's advisers put forward the idea that the king was the emperor in his kingdom, that is, his power was not limited by any customs, and his will had the force of law.
The victory in the Hundred Years' War further strengthened the king's power in France: all the lands taken from the English king became part of the royal domain, and the national identity that arose in France precisely during the years of centuries-long confrontation with England made the king a symbol of national unity.
At Louis XI(1461-1483) and Charles VIII(1483-1498) the unification of France was completed.
The consolidation of Capetian power and the final transformation of France into the largest power of the Middle Ages began during the reign of Louis VI the Thick (1108–1137), who succeeded the inactive Philip I (1060–1108). During his 30-year reign, Louis established control over his own lands. He forced all his vassals in Ile-de-France to recognize him as their rightful master and to faithfully fulfill feudal obligations. Louis destroyed the castles that served as refuges for feudal lords who did not obey him, and gained control over the remaining castles. Having gained direct control over the territory adjacent to Paris, Louis took up the affairs of government. He appointed only loyal and capable officials, who were called provosts. They carried out the royal will and were always under the supervision of the king, who constantly traveled around the country. Just before his death, Louis married his son, also Louis, to Alienor of Aquitaine, heiress of the largest duchy in France.
The transformations that took place in Ile-de-France under Louis VI were exactly repeated in other large feudal states. The County of Flanders became the most influential state in northern Europe. The Flanders counts received large incomes from the cities and the wool-spinning industry and soon accumulated considerable wealth. The Duchy of Normandy was just as strong, with the County of Anjou not far behind. Famous fairs of the 12th century. in Champagne provided this county with the widest fame in Europe.
The critical stage in the history of the Capetian dynasty falls on the years 1137–1214. The desire to destroy this dynasty appeared among the kings of England, who were strong and determined opponents. Back in 1066, Duke William the Conqueror of Normandy defeated the army of the Anglo-Saxon king Harold at the Battle of Hastings and annexed his rich kingdom to his duchy. With such a foothold, William and his successors acquired a power unmatched in France. During the reign of Louis VII (1137–1180), the English kings captured almost half of France and even annexed the Ile-de-France. The English king Henry II (1154–1189) took possession not only of England and Normandy, but also of the counties of Anjou, Maine and Tours, inherited from his father, Count Geoffrey of Anjou, who was married to the English Queen Matilda. Due to the shortsightedness of Louis VII, he was able to further expand his possessions in France. The marriage of Louis VII and Alienora of Aquitaine was unsuccessful. Louis was unable to understand the passionate Alienor and forgive her love interests during the 2nd Crusade (1147–1149). In addition, the couple did not have an heir. As a result, in 1152, Louis persuaded the pope to allow him a divorce. Because of this ill-considered act, he lost southwestern France, and Henry II of England won Alienora's hand in two months and annexed her duchy to his vast possessions on the mainland. Henry II, King of England, gained control of Brittany by marrying his son Geoffrey to the heiress of that duchy. He also secured the support of the counts of Toulouse and Auvergne. Henry created a vast feudal state that almost surrounded the Ile-de-France.
Philip II Augustus. If Louis VII had been replaced on the throne by another equally indecisive king, disaster could have befallen France. Fortunately, his son Philip II Augustus (1180–1223), one of the greatest kings of medieval France, became the heir. By inciting a rebellion against Henry II and encouraging his internecine struggle with his sons who ruled the lands on the mainland, Philip was able to prevent attacks on his power. After Henry II's only political defeat on the mainland, it forced him to return the border fortresses and pay war reparations. During the reign of Henry's successor Richard I (1189–1199), Philip had less luck. Both kings began their relationship with assurances of friendship. Richard recognized Philip's holdings in France and both vowed to go together on the 3rd Crusade (1189–1192). However, on the way to Palestine they quarreled. In 1191 Philip called in sick and returned to France to plot against Richard. Allied with vassals in the English possessions and with Richard's younger brother John, Philip provoked unrest in France and England. After Richard was captured in Austria on his return from the crusade in 1192 and handed over for ransom to the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI, Philip invaded Richard's domain with impunity. However, in 1194 Richard was released and returned to France to settle scores with Philip. Until 1199 he constantly won victories. Only the sudden death of Richard during a predatory raid saved Philip from further defeats. Philip continued his intrigues against Richard's successor John (1199–1216). A short time later he summoned John to appear before the feudal court in Paris to account for certain acts which were considered unbecoming of a vassal. John neglected this invitation, and he was declared a criminal, and the lands that belonged to him were ordered to be confiscated. In the war that broke out in 1202, Philip won a complete victory and in two years deprived John of all his possessions in France, with the exception of Gascony.
However, Philip's activities did not end there. In 1214 he had to fight again with John and a broad coalition of German and Dutch rulers at Bouvines in southern Flanders. There he inflicted a decisive defeat on the troops of John, Otto IV and the Flemings. Thus, Philip established French hegemony in Western Europe for the next century.
In addition to unifying the northern and central regions of France, Philip laid the groundwork for the annexation of the southwestern part of the country. In 1208, when Pope Innocent III called for a crusade against the county of Toulouse, where the Albigensian heresy had taken deep roots, Philip, without personally intervening, encouraged the French nobility to participate in this campaign. In 1213 Toulouse was conquered and occupied by the troops of Simon de Montfort and his crusaders. Although the Count of Toulouse subsequently returned his lands, Philip's successor managed to extend royal power to this territory.
Philip transformed royal finances along the lines of the English treasury, expanded the powers of the royal court, and reformed local government. His most progressive innovation was the appointment of officials to administer the newly formed judicial districts. Salaried by the king, these new officials faithfully carried out royal commissions and helped unify the newly conquered territories. Philip himself stimulated the development of cities in France, giving them broad rights of self-government.
Louis IX. During the brief reign of Philip Augustus' son Louis VIII (1223–1226), the County of Toulouse was annexed to the kingdom. France now extended from Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. When Louis VIII died, the throne passed to his twelve-year-old son Louis IX (1226–1270), who was later named Saint Louis. While the king remained a minor, the kingdom was in danger. There were revolts of feudal lords, conspiracies and peasant uprisings.
Louis did not consider it necessary to expand the borders of the kingdom by force. Having completely defeated the English king Henry III, in 1259 he signed the Treaty of Paris, according to which he recognized the rights of the English to Gascony in exchange for Henry III's confirmation of French rights to Normandy and adjacent lands. A year earlier, by concluding the Treaty of Corbeil, Louis resolved the dispute between France and Aragon. In such actions he showed a sense of ethics and tolerance unprecedented in the medieval era. As a result, during the long reign of Louis IX, France was almost always at peace. The only exception was the king's participation in two crusades. However, the 6th Crusade against Egypt (1248–1250), led by Louis, ended in complete defeat. His army, drained of blood by the plague and fighting, was forced to surrender. A large ransom had to be paid for Louis and the other survivors. Already old and frail, in 1270 he set out on the 7th Crusade against the Turks in North Africa. There the king died even before the start of hostilities.
The most significant legacy of Louis IX for France was the improvement of the system of government. To check the officials acting locally on his behalf, he introduced the practice of inspection trips by the king's representatives. Louis actively participated in the work of the royal court and at times convened the supreme court of France, called the parliament. The Treasury also functioned quite efficiently and was staffed by employees who understood finance. While devoted to the church, he nevertheless did not allow the pope to challenge the prerogative of royal power and did not allow religious courts to interfere with the jurisdiction of royal tribunals.
The reign of Philip III (1270–1285) represented a continuation of the policies of Louis IX. Philip's attempt to expand the kingdom ended unsuccessfully: in the Aragonese campaign of 1285, his army was defeated and he himself was killed. Philip's significant historical achievement was the arrangement of his son's marriage to the heiress of the county of Champagne, which guaranteed the annexation of these rich lands to the royal domain.
Philip IV the Handsome. The reign of Philip IV the Fair (1285–1314) is equal in importance to the reigns of Philip Augustus and Saint Louis. An active champion of innovation, Philip played a significant role in turning France into modern state. Surrounding himself with advisors such as Pierre Flot, Guillaume Nogaret and Pierre Dubois, men whose goal was to strengthen and centralize royal power, Philip laid the foundations for an absolute monarchy.
Philip methodically expanded the territory of the kingdom. To justify the seizure of the lands of his vassals, he used the norms of feudal law, taking advantage of his position as ruler of all France. In 1294–1303, he almost managed to conquer Gascony, the possession of the English king Edward I. Philip intended to take control of the rich county of Flanders, which adjoined his kingdom on the other side, and even held it for some time. However, in the spring of 1302, the Flemings rebelled, killed the French garrison in Bruges, and then defeated the French army at the Battle of Kortrijk (Courtray). Thus, in the Middle Ages, Flanders never became part of France. However, in the southeast, Philip managed to acquire Franche-Comté and lands around the cities of Lyon and Toulouse.
Philip limited the participation of popes in the government of the French church, opposed the transfer of cases from French religious courts to the papal court, and rejected the pope's demand that the clergy be taxed only with papal consent. Philip ignored the bulls of Boniface VIII, which asserted the superiority of the church and pope over kings. If the clergy refused to pay him taxes, he outlawed him and even allowed his supporters to seize Boniface as a hostage in the Italian town of Anagni. This act led to the early death of the elderly dad. Then Philip ensured the election of a French prelate to the papal throne, ordered him to remain in France and settle in the city of Avignon, in Provence. The popes stayed here for most of the 14th century. like real puppets of French kings. To strengthen his position, Philip brought imaginary charges of heresy against the ancient knightly order of the crusaders - the Templars. Philip decided to appropriate the wealth of the order and thus eliminate the debts of the monarchy. In 1307 he forced the pope to take over the affairs of the Templars. During falsified trials, torture and persecution that lasted for seven years, the Templars were completely ruined, and their property went to the crown.
The name of Philip is associated with the first convocation of the Estates General of France, traditionally considered as a national assembly consisting of representatives of several classes: the first (clergy), second (feudal lords) and third (citizens). To obtain funds for his wars and to secure public support for his political and military activities, Philip met with members of the assemblies in 1302, 1308 and 1314.
After himself, Philip (d. 1314) left a centralized state. The French feudal aristocracy was dissatisfied with the consolidation of the monarchy and the restrictions imposed on it. After Philip's death, the nobles demanded that the guarantees of traditional feudal rights be respected. Although the protests of the feudal lords were suppressed, they contributed to the weakening of the Capetian dynasty, which now suffered from short-term reigns of kings and the absence of direct heirs. When Philip IV's son Louis X (1314–1316) died, the Capetian dynasty was left without a male heir for the first time in 329 years. An assembly of major feudal lords decided that the crown should pass to Louis X's brother Philip V, who reigned from 1316 to 1322. The same step was repeated in 1322, and this time the throne went to Philip V's brother Charles IV (1322–1328). When the latter also died without leaving a son, the crown passed to his closest male relative, his cousin Philip of Valois - the founder of the Valois dynasty, which held the reins of power in France until the end of the Middle Ages.
Economic recovery under the Capetians. France under the Capetians experienced an economic boom. When Hugh Capet was proclaimed king in 987, on the territory of France, surrounded by forests, there were many villages whose population was engaged in agriculture. There were practically no roads. It was hardly possible to find a settlement similar to a city. The capital Paris was a small fortress located on the Ile de la Cité on the Seine River. Royal taxes were paid almost exclusively in natural products. There was no real trade or industry. However, gradually at the end of the 10th and 11th centuries, with the establishment of political stability in northwestern Europe, the opportunity to engage in trade arose. Merchants often had to live behind fortress walls. Gradually, many of them settled in places conveniently located for trading or practicing crafts, such as Paris, Lyon, Rouen, Troyes, Tours, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Narbonne and others, located on the coasts of the seas and along the banks of rivers, as well as along expensive Walls were built around new trading settlements, and thus medieval cities arose.
From the beginning of the 11th century. city residents were freed from feudal dependence and acquired the rights of free citizens. They could buy, sell and alienate property and paid nominal rent for their lands and houses. The townspeople were granted some trading privileges. Throughout the 12th–13th centuries. hundreds of communities acquired these new elementary privileges. More enlightened kings and feudal lords encouraged such trends, realizing that new cities facilitated the development of trade, industry and the exploitation of various economic resources.
From legal, economic and social privileges it was a short step to winning political rights. Since the 11th century. The largest cities achieved self-government. Such cities, called communes, elected their own councils, which decided all their affairs. These councils adopted regulations affecting all aspects of city life, from the economic regulation of trade and production to the maintenance of schools, hospitals and fortifications. The councils were engaged in collecting taxes and deducting the required amount from them to the feudal landowners.
In the 13th century France had changed greatly and was noticeably different from the state of the times of Charlemagne or Hugo Capet. Companies were organized; letters of credit and bills of exchange appeared to facilitate credit and exchange of money, bank branches were created in business centers; Insurance developed to reduce economic risk. Successful merchants invested their income in businesses and estates. In the 12th–13th centuries. most of economic activity France was under the control of entrepreneurs who, by their behavior and essence, were capitalists. Although the country's economy was still based on agriculture, market relations and capital circulation became increasingly important.
Development of culture. The transformation of the French economy, which began at the end of the 10th century, was a prerequisite for the development of culture. In 900, intellectual achievements such as the ability to read and write Latin were available only to the clergy. The role of the church in France was very weak. However, in the 10th century. Under the influence of the Cluny movement, which spread from the Cluny monastery founded in 910 in Burgundy, the church advocated ending the trade in church positions and strengthening the hierarchy of the clergy. In the 11th century this reform was supported by the revived papacy, and at the end of the 11th century. The church in France became such a dynamic force that it was able to lead the 1st Crusade and turned its energies to increasing the level of education of the population. Monasteries again became centers of education, and famous cathedral schools arose in Laon, Chartres and Paris. Based on a Parisian school at the end of the 12th century. The famous University of Paris was organized, which became a model for other French universities that arose in the 13th and 14th centuries. The most famous medieval scientists flocked to Paris, including Pierre Abelard, Thomas Aquinas and Albertus Magnus. Latin literature was cultivated in Paris and other centers of education. The Greek classics, most notably Aristotle, were translated into Latin. Roman canon law was diligently studied and systematized, theological works were composed, and encyclopedias were compiled. Students from all over Europe came to Paris and other French universities. In France, a thorough study of the Latin language and literature led to the creation of remarkable Latin lyric and epic poetry by wandering scholars and students who were called goliards, or vagantes. Soon works in prose and poetry appeared in the vernacular.
France stood out for its achievements in the field of art and architecture. In the 11th - first half of the 12th century. Majestic Romanesque churches were built with impressive facades and columns decorated with sculptures, massive walls with adjacent galleries. Among these extraordinarily beautiful churches are Saint-Sernin in Toulouse, Notre-Dame in Clermont-Ferrand, Saint-Trophime in Arles and Abbe-aux-Homes in Caen. The magnificent and original architectural creations of medieval France were Gothic cathedrals. The Gothic style, which developed in Ile-de-France around the middle of the 12th century, then spread throughout France and Western Europe. The most beautiful cathedrals and churches were built in Ile-de-France and neighboring areas. Notable among them are Notre Dame Cathedral and the cathedrals of Reims, Chartres, Laon, Amiens, Beauvais and Soissons. Perfect harmony and proportions in the composition, sculptural decorations and skillfully executed stained glass windows testify to the achievement of a high level technical knowledge and artistic skill. Monuments of Gothic architecture serve as eloquent evidence of the brilliance of French culture in the Middle Ages.
Supreme political power in France under an absolute monarchy passes entirely to the king. The strengthened royal power becomes the only source of law.
To do this, the kings needed to overcome the political opposition of the feudal oligarchy and the Catholic Church, eliminate class-representative institutions, create a centralized bureaucratic apparatus, a standing army, and police.
Already in the 16th century. The Estates General practically cease to function. In 1614 they convened for the last time, were soon dissolved and did not meet again until 1789. For some time, the king gathered notables (feudal nobility) to consider projects of important reforms and resolve financial issues. In the 16th century (according to the Concordat of Bologna in 1516 and the Edict of Nantes in 1598), the king completely subjugated the Catholic Church in France.
As a kind of political opposition to royal power in the 16th-17th centuries. The Parisian Parliament spoke, which by this time had become a stronghold of the feudal nobility and repeatedly used its right of remonstration and rejected royal acts. The Royal Ordinance of 1667 established that remonstration could only be declared within a certain period after the king issued the order, and repeated remonstration was not allowed. In 1668, King Louis XIV, appearing at the Paris Parliament, personally removed from its archives all the protocols relating to the Fronde period, i.e. to the anti-absolutist protests of the mid-17th century. In 1673, he also decided that parliament did not have the right to refuse registration of royal acts, and remonstration could only be declared separately. In practice, this deprived Parliament of its most important prerogative - to protest and reject royal legislation.
The general idea of the king's power and the nature of his specific powers also changed. In 1614, at the proposal of the Estates General, the French monarchy was declared divine, and the power of the king began to be considered sacred. A new official title for the king was introduced: “King by the Grace of God.” The ideas about the sovereignty and unlimited power of the king are finally established. Increasingly, the state begins to be identified with the personality of the king, which found its extreme expression in the statement attributed to Louis XIV: “The state is me!”
The idea that absolutism was based on divine right did not mean the perception of the idea of the personal power of the king, much less identifying it with despotism. Royal prerogatives did not go beyond the legal order, and it was believed that “the king works for the State.”
In general, French absolutism was based on the concept of an inextricable connection between the king and the state, the absorption of the former by the latter. It was believed that the king himself, his property, his family belonged to the French state and nation. Legally, the king was recognized as the source of any power that was not subject to any control. This, in particular, led to the consolidation of the king’s complete freedom in the field of legislation. Under absolutism, legislative power belongs to him alone according to the principle: “one king, one law.” The king had the right of appointment to any state and church office, although this right could be delegated to lower officials. He was the final authority in all matters of public administration. The king made the most important foreign policy decisions, determined the economic policy of the state, established taxes, and acted as the highest manager of public funds. Judicial power was exercised on his behalf.
