Creativity and overcoming stereotypes Granovskaya read. Overcoming psychological defense

Annotation

In the book of the famous Russian psychologist Professor Rada Granovskaya, faith is seen as the support of human aspirations and needs. The influence of world religions on the formation of human psychology is shown, the deep connections between the power of faith and human development are revealed. The influence of faith on the worldview, mental health and ethics of modern man is analyzed. Extensive materials accumulated by world religions, historical and religious, dedicated to the founders and canons of various faiths, international and domestic experience in the field of general psychology were used. The second edition of the monograph (the previous one was published in 2004) has been revised.

For psychologists, teachers, philosophers and students of specialized faculties of higher educational institutions.

Rada Granovskaya

Introduction

Part I. Psychological aspect of the main religions of the world

Chapter 1 Hinduism

Chapter 2 Zoroastrianism

Chapter 3 Buddhism

Chapter 4 Confucianism

Chapter 5 Judaism

Chapter 6 Christianity

Chapter 7 Islam

Part II. The place of faith in the structure of the psyche

Chapter 8 The impact of faith on the perception of the world

Chapter 9 Model of the world and its change under the influence of faith

Chapter 10 Invasion of the psyche and destruction of personality by a totalitarian sect

Closing Discussion

The evolution of ideas about God

Canons - the cradle of the development of language and style

Stages of moral development

Progress in understanding the universe

Scientific ideas to be developed

Socialization through rites and rituals

What are we going to?

Bibliography

Rada Granovskaya

Psychology of faith

Introduction

And if you greet only your brothers, what special thing are you doing?

Mf. 5, 47

I began this book with deep excitement and many doubts. There is no number of great minds who have struggled with the problems of faith. After all, this is a whole world, and the author inevitably feels like an ant who has to climb one of the highest mountains. The only relief, and even a weak one, is that I decide to look at religion exclusively from my professional position as a psychologist and make an attempt to answer only a few questions. How are world religions different and similar? What spiritual needs Does faith satisfy? Why is it so important for a person? Is a person without higher values ​​capable of remaining human? Finally, why is there a noticeable turn towards faith during critical, most difficult periods in the lives of both individuals and an entire nation? There are many questions and it is so important to answer them today.

Why today and why to me, a psychologist?

The last question is perhaps a little easier to answer. Our country and a significant part of its people are now going through a difficult period. The first thing that catches your eye in everyday communication is the lack of trust between people, which is unusual for our fellow citizens. In addition, there was a feeling of chaos in society, fear of violence, and environmental problems worsened. It is clear that no amount of wealth and comfort of life can bring us peace and happiness if there is not the necessary trust between fellow citizens. In other words, changes occur not only in the general picture of the world, but also in the psyche of an individual person. Profound changes in society lead to the need to reconsider one’s ideas about the meaning of life, to realize one’s responsibility for the future of loved ones and the entire country. Turning our attention to those prosperous countries where the achievements of civilization are praised, we notice that racial prejudices flourish and religious disagreements flare up every now and then. From here it becomes clear that until we cultivate mutual trust and tolerance, a decisive step will not be taken towards achieving peace of mind either within the country or peace between nations.

Such profound changes are closely related to awareness of the problems of the meaning of life and personal responsibility. For many years, these important problems faced our compatriots less acutely and in a completely different way than now, and therefore did not lead to nervous strain. Now the provoking factors of such overload are, first of all, uncertainty about the future, social and economic instability. It is they, being the causes of destabilization of the psyche, that encourage the search for support and protection.

Nowadays, the social environment has begun to place increased demands on most people. Many people are unable to adapt and cope with new problems on their own. (This always happens during periods of collapse of old ideals and the traditional way of life.) Under these conditions, a whole army of amateurs rushed into practical psychology and psychotherapy. They were the first to rush into a huge breakthrough and declared themselves capable of solving any problem. These include leaders of newly formed sects, psychics, sorcerers, astrologers, and various mystical healers. Many shamelessly began to exploit the emerging need. No matter how bitter it is to admit this, they were the first to feel that the moment had come when everyone personally and collectively needed support. Thus, we have all witnessed the sad consequences of attracting young people to totalitarian sects, and looking back at the predictions of astrologers has literally become widespread. At the same time, it is important to understand that such epidemics of the influence of astrology are supported by a keen sense of one’s dependence on something incomprehensible and uncontrollable.

Who and how should respond to such a request from society?

It seems that the solution to some problems should fall on the shoulders of psychologists. We (first and foremost) must deal with practical needs. If the issue of worldview has become a psychological problem, then it is necessary to deal with it. All the scientific and practical activities of a psychologist gradually led me to this conclusion. Indeed, what is the central problem for a practical psychologist? Helping a person in his specific life difficulties. What are they? It turns out that with all the variety of life situations and destinies, there are not so many typical problems.

How to improve relationships with people around you?

How to survive the illnesses and failures of loved ones?

How to find the meaning of life and make it both personally meaningful and socially useful?

Ways to solve these problems are largely determined and closely related to the ability to overcome subconscious psychological barriers and conscious stereotypes, as well as social defenses. Some of my books are devoted to ways to solve such problems: “Elements of Practical Psychology” (83), “Creativity and Overcoming Stereotypes” (82), “Personal Protection” (84), “Psychological Protection.”

So, today the need for various forms of adaptation has increased dramatically, but why should this be associated with religious faith? I can answer this question in different ways. From the position of a practical psychologist and teacher. First of all, I remember that for the past fifteen years I have clearly sensed the growing need of my listeners for clarification of the psychological aspects of faith. According to established tradition, when finishing a course of lectures on practical psychology for students, engineers, graduate students, university teachers and managers, I conducted a survey. Among others, it necessarily included a question about those problems that are relevant, but were not sufficiently reflected in the course read or were not touched upon at all. The answers are quite eloquent. They sounded like an alarm bell.

Introduction________________________________________________________________2

Pconcept« protection"_________________________________________________3

Overview of defense mechanisms______________________________________________6

Protective automation__________________________________________________________9

Psychological defense mechanisms______________________________10

Conclusion______________________________________________________________19

Bibliography__________________________________________________________20

1. Introduction.

Psychological protection is a special system
personality stabilization aimed at protecting
consciousness from unpleasant, traumatic experiences,
associated with internal and external conflicts,
states of anxiety and discomfort [Psychology. Dictionary. Edited by Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G. -M.: Politizdat, 1990].

As Z. Freud pointed out, the main problem of human
existence is to
deal with the fear and anxiety that arise in life
in our different situations. Therefore, the elimination of anxiety and
getting rid of fear is the most powerful criterion
effectiveness of protective mechanisms.

FearPacquiresnnewformsWithRhuman development.
First it is the underlying biological emotion
vital anxiety about the upcoming punishment
("What hAuhThatWithO will they do it to me?"). Then fear transforms
reconciled into human feelings lying in social
or moral sphere: shame and guilt. WITHthousand arises as
pressure of public morality and is focused on external
evaluation (“What will they think of me?”). INina reflects
the child’s personal ideas about himself (autonomous
ral) and self-esteem (“What should I say about myself now?
think?").

Thus, according to Freud, the principle of organization
psychological defense can be expressed by the formula:
“No fear and anxiety - no defense mechanisms.” WHO-
nrepentanceVOntogenesisRvarioustypesanxietyincentives-
RcozyRdevelopmentRvarietieshprotective mechanisms. At
In this case, initially, fear and anxiety prompt a person to turn on
begin defense mechanisms unconsciously, and only then
they begin to act consciously and purposefully
But. In one of his last works, Freud defines the defense
that as a general name for all those mechanisms that
which, being products of development and learning, weaken
dialectically united external-internal conflict and
regulate individual behavior. Thus she
associated with such mental functions as balancing, adaptation and regulation

[Psychological diagnostics of the life style index (a manual for doctors and psychologists) edited by Wasserman L.I. -SPb.: PNI, 1998.

Mechanisms of psychological defense. Romanova E.S., Grebennikov L.R., -M, 1996].

2. Pconcept« protection".

For the first time the concept of “defense” 3. Freud used in
1894 in his work “Defensive neuropsychoses”.
According to his initial ideas, the mechanisms
psychological defenses are innate, launch-
ToareVuhextremeWithsituations and perform function
« withdrawalsVinternalToconflict", those. act as a medium
resolution of the conflict between consciousness and unconsciousness
wearable In modern psychology, ideas about the connection between protection and extreme situations and mitigation
with its help, conflicts have been preserved, and the
the idea of ​​the innate diversity of forms of defense in horses
specific person - has undergone correction.

His fundamental provisions on protection 3. Freud
formulated in the process of treating patients with neuroses:
reversible disorders caused by exposure to
the effect of psychotraumatic factors. Enabling protection mechanisms for accompanying
is given by a subjective feeling of relief - relief
voltage. Subsequently, defense mechanisms became
be considered not only as an element of the human psyche,
prone to neurotic reactions or suffering
neuroses, but also as a function of the “I” - the conscious hour-
ty personality of any person. When integrity is at risk
personality, it is the defense mechanisms that are responsible for its
integration and adaptation to real circumstances
stvam.

It has been shown that enabling protection can cause
lead not only ToAcurrentOrelief, but also to the appearance
laziness Withstable,dliterallyffunctioningstrok-
Tur, which will become more active in the future
similar circumstances. At the same time, the invasion defended
you may be accompanied by the formation of specific
ical, conditionally desirable, symptoms that
involve a person in solving a situation related to
with the conflict, and also partially reduce the internal pressure
yarn

WhatPduehare you looking for?- Harmony, balance
uncertainty of personality structure. Freud formulated
theoretical ideas about personality structure. In his opinion, personality includes three parts: “It”,
"I" and "Super-Ego". Working closely with each other,
each of these parts performs its own specific
functions. “It” is a reservoir of unconsciousness
body irrational reactions and impulses, fi-
physiological in nature, and serves as a source
psychic energy, guided by the principle of satisfaction
liberty. However, a reckless craving for pleasure, not
taking into account real conditions, can lead people
century to death, therefore, in the process of ontogenesis, he
“I” has been formed - a conscious beginning, acting
based on the principle of reality and performing
function as a mediator between irrational aspirations
tions of “It” and the demands of society, embodied
in the third part of the personality - “Super-I” [Freud Sigmund. "I" and "It". Tbilisi: Merani, 1991].

“Super-ego” is a kind of moral censorship, level
the line of social duty, which consists of
precepts developed in the life of people together, and o-
restrictions imposed by society on ways to satisfy
creation of biologically significant needs. Norms
and prohibitions accepted by the individual are the main content
"Super-ego" system.

“I” regulates the process of conscious adaptation
tions to external and internal environments. This is the force that
paradise balances deep unconscious drives
and the demands of society, performing the function of their synthesis
behind. Freud compared the relationship between “I” and “Id” with the relationship
between the rider (“I”) and the horse (“It”). Being between powerful motives -
mi "It" and the limitations of the "Super-I", the "I" strives
fulfill its protective task, restore
harmony between various forces and influences, acting
affecting a person from the outside and from the inside. You could say
that the main function of the “I” is to establish relationships
NI. Often this can be a tense relationship
ity, since the “I” must restrain the demands of “It”
in accordance with the attitudes of society. And such tension
femininity is subjectively experienced as a state of anxiety
vogues, worries, guilt.

Gradually, most researchers are inclined to
It was concluded that the functional purpose and purpose
psychological protection consists VOweakeningint-
personalToconflict(tension, anxiety)
conditional Pcontradictory between instinctive
impulses of the unconscious and internalized
shaped) requirements of the external environment that arise
as a result of social interaction. Weakened
By eliminating this conflict, protection regulates human behavior
ka, increasing its adaptability and balancing
psyche. At the same time, its conflict between the need
and fear a person can express in different ways:

Through mental changes,
- through bodily disorders (dysfunctions), manifested in the form of chronic psychosomatic symptoms,

In the form of changing behavior patterns.

The security view extension is associated with the name
daughter of Sigmund Freud - Anna Freud. She did
an attempt to generalize and systematize knowledge about mechanics
nisms of psychological defense, accumulated by the middle
Dina 40-ies of the twentieth century. A. Freud emphasized Obere-
barking nature of defense mechanisms, indicating that
they prevent disorganization and disintegration of behavior„
maintain normal mental status personally
sty [Freud Anna. Psychology of the “I” and defense mechanisms. -M.: Pedagogy-Press, 1993]. She introduced into her father’s basic concept
nal adjustments: the role of mechanisms was emphasized
protection in resolution Vforeign(sociogenic)conflict-
Tov, and the mechanisms themselves were considered not only as
manifestation of innate inclinations, but also how PproductsindividualOtortureAndnunarbitrarynteachings. Was
formed the idea that naborhprotective
mmechanismsAndindividualAndXcharacterizesatleveladapt-
Rexcitementlidentity.AND finally, she gave for the first time-
returned definition of defense mechanisms: « Protective
mmechanisms- uhThatdactivity« I",Towhichnbegins
Towhen« I"PrejectedhdimensionalAactivityPdiscussions
AndwhetherWithrelevantAndmAeffects,Prepresentingdla
nhisOdanger.ABOUTneitherfare functioningautomatically,newith-
GcaressingWithWithawareness[Mechanisms of psychological defense. Romanova E.S., Grebennikov L.R., -M, 1996].

A. Freud divided mmechanismshprotectionnAGgroupsAnd
allocated perceptual,AndintellectualAndengine-
ny automatisms.

3.Overview of protective mechanisms.

The founder of the concept of defense mechanisms is S. Freud. He identified eight defense mechanisms: 1. Repression, 2. Projection, 3. Substitution, 4. Rationalization, 5. Reaction, 6. Regression, 7. Sublimation, 8. Denial.

Among
modern researchers have no consensus on
this issue. As already mentioned, in the original
A. Freud's monograph describes fifteen mechanisms
mov: 1. Repression (suppression). 2. Regression. 3. Formation of reaction. 4. Isolation. 5. Denial (cancellation) of a completed action taking place. 6. Projection. 7. Introjection. 8. Appeal to one's own personality. 9. Transformation into your opposite. 10. Sublimation.

A. Freud, apparently, the mechanism of movement is identified
with sublimation and therefore did not single it out as
independent defense mechanism. Other feature
the list she proposed is that it includes those protective mechanisms that involuntarily or
partially consciously used primarily for
shields from internal frustrators.

Subsequently, this list was supplemented with new mechanisms directed against external frustrators:
11. Escape (withdrawal) from the situation. 12. Denial. 13.Identification. 14. Limitation of Self.

In the Dictionary-Reference Book of Psychiatry, published
jubilant American Psychiatric Association
tion in 1975 - twenty-three. Summarizing the list of everything
only two classifications [Blum G. Psychoanalytic theories of personality. -M., 1996. Ursano R., Sonnenberg S., Lazar S. Psychodynamic psychotherapy: a brief guide. -M.: RPA, 1992], L.I.-Wasserman with
co-authors [Psychological diagnostics of the life style index (manual for doctors and psychologists) edited by Wasserman L.I. -SPb.: PNI, 1998] as an example they give a list of
thirty-four psychological defense mechanisms.
This is repression, negation, displacement, reverse
feeling, suppression (primary and secondary), identity
fication with the aggressor, asceticism, intellectualization,
isolation of affect, regression, sublimation, splitting,
projection, projective identification, omnipotence
in, devaluation, primitive idealization, reactive
formation (reversion or formation of reaction),
replacement or substitution (compensation or subli-
mation), displacement, introjection, destruction, idealization
ization, dreaming, rationalization, alienation, ca-
tarsis, creativity, reaction staging, fantasy
overstocking, overstocking, auto-aggression. We are in our own
research we differentiate 11 mechanisms of protection
you in adults and 5 children's behavioral reactions [Granovskaya R.N. Elements of practical psychology. -SPb.: Light, 1997.
Granovskaya R.N., Bereznaya I.Ya. Intuition and artificial intelligence. -L.: Leningrad State University, 1991. Granovskaya R.M., Nikolskaya I.M. Personal protection: psychological mechanisms. -SPb.: Knowledge, 1998].

Great contribution to the study of psychological defense
and developing methods for testing it (i.e. measuring
the contribution of each mechanism to the defense repertoire of a given
person) contributed by R. Plutchik. His main idea is
is that the mechanisms of psychological defense
you are Pderivativesuhemotions, and emotions determine
are used as basic means of adaptation. Plutchik
identifies eight basic adaptive reactions (incor-
poration, rejection, protection, destruction, reproduction
production, reintegration, orientation, research),
which, from his point of view, act as prototypes
eight basic emotions (fear, anger, joy, sadness,
acceptance, disgust, expectation, surprise). Besides that-
go, he drew attention to the fact that the protective mechanisms
we are characterized by opposites (bipolar
stu) to the extent that the underlying
emotions (joy - sadness, fear - anger, acceptance - disgust, expectation - surprise). Thus,
he reduces the eight basic mechanisms to four pas-
ram: reactive formation - compensation, suppression
nie - substitution, negation - projection, intellectual
lization - regression. Because defense mechanisms
are derivatives of emotions, then they, by analogy with
emotions, are classified into basic (denial,
repression, regression, compensation, projection, replacement
tion, intellectualization, reactive education) and
secondary (including all others).

Having determined the dependence of the manifestation of certain me-
mechanisms of protection from the stage of age-related development of personal
ity, features of specific cognitive processes
and a hypothetical scale of primitiveness-maturity from
effective defense mechanisms, R. Plutchik built them
sequence which VPin orderVgrowthin sight-
lawns, looks like that. Mechanisms are among the first to appear.
nisms associated with perceptual processes. Name-
but the processes of sensation, perception and attention carry
liability for defenses related to non-vision is not
understanding information (perceptual defenses). TO
this group includes negationAndRegression, as well as their
analogues. They act as the most primitive and
characterize the person who “abuses” them as
emotionally and personally less mature. Then fiddle
protection zones associated with memory processes, namely
but with forgetting information (repression and suppression)
tion). The latest, as processes develop
thinking and imagination are formed and the most
complex and mature types of protection associated with processing
coy and revaluation of information (rationalization).

The predominance of any protective mechanism in a person
mechanism can lead to the development of certain traits
and character accentuations. On the contrary, people with a certain
properties tend to trust specific protection
there. A certain protection mechanism as a means of using
perceptions of reality may characterize serious
personality disorders and disorders. Most complete
such a relationship is substantiated in theoretical research
works by G. Kellerman and R. Plutchik, who propose
have a specific network of relationships between various
different levels of personality: emotions, defense and disposition (hereditary predisposition to mental
mental diseases). So, a paranoid person,
which is characterized by high criticality and
suspiciousness towards others, feeling
own inferiority is protected by projection.
An aggressive personality whose main emotion is
anger (irritation) arises, uses defense Substituted
niya, allowing her to direct the reaction of aggression to
more secure object. In the suggestible and uncritical
hysterical personality the predominant type of defense
is a negation. Passive personality type (rob-
weak, dependent, uninitiative, prone to avoidance
solving problems and withdrawing into oneself) is protected from country-
ha - his most characteristic emotion - with the help suppression and repression.

Our ideas are also based on understanding
the significance of the patterns of maturation of various psychological structures and their readiness to get involved in the work on
protecting the child’s peace of mind. In addition, we
we take into account two more factors: sequence: the sequence of passage of the traumatic signal from the sensitive input to the motor output and the possibility of its protective transformation at each stage [R.N. Elements of practical psychology. -SPb.: Light, 1997. Granovskaya R.N., Krizhanskaya Yu.S. Creativity and overcoming stereotypes. -SPb.: Exclusive, 1994], as well as structure
VliliesWithsocialWitheds, through specific social
nal barriers, on the repertoire (style) of the used
protection man [Granovskaya R.M., Nikolskaya I.M. Personal protection: psychological mechanisms. -SPb.: Knowledge, 1998. Granovskaya R.N., Krizhanskaya Yu.S. Creativity and overcoming stereotypes. -SPb.: Exclusive, 1994].

4. Protective automation.

Arguing that psychological defense mechanisms act automatically, not in accordance with consciousness,
A. Freud classified them as a special class of unconscious
phenomena called automatisms. Automaticity - -
these are actions and acts that are performed by themselves,
regardless of the conscious desires and intentions of a person
century [Gipenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology. -M.: "CheRo", 1996].

Analysis of automatic processes detects them
dual origin. Some of these processes
were never realized because they were innate or
formed very early, often during the first year
yes to the life of a child. (So, in young children, before
a full-fledged system of psychological protection will be formed
shields, reaction to unpleasant stimuli and states of pro-
is Aautomatically How fisiologicalatmove fromonce-
ddefender.)DothersPprocessesProvalihthrough consciousnessAnd
TonlyPAboutPstoppedOconfess. The main thing in this regard is
zi is the understanding that the personality “reacts”,
“does not notice”, “forgets” or “justifies himself” in the wrong
pleasant situation Aautomatically, that is, without giving yourself
this report.

As a means of adaptation and resolution of psychological
conflicts, protective automatisms develop in
ontogeny. They protect the child from displeasure,
coming from within (internal instinctive stimuli-
ly), and from displeasure, the sources of which are found -
in the outside world. During the first phase of development, before
1 year, immature organism has minimal means
protection from negative emotions associated with unpleasant
mi and dangerous incentives. This is a series of congenital motors
reactions, which include protective withdrawal
screaming, closing your eyes, screaming, crying, smiling, sucking, moving
movements of the torso, limbs, head, etc., as well as their
complexes.

As you know, a newborn starts. own life
from a cry, which in the first days has an unconditional ref-
lecture character. The first cry is the result of a spasm
glottis. However, some scientists believe that
the first cry is also the first manifestation of negative
emotions: spasms cause a feeling of tightness. In this
In this case, it is impossible to distinguish between the muscle response and
emotional attitude - the newborn does not yet have
no life experience. However, it can be argued
that already in the first days of life the child responds with a cry to
unpleasant sensations associated with the need for pi-
more, in sleep, warmer, and later with separation from the mother, and so
protects himself the most [Mukhina V.S. Age-related psychology. -M.: "Academy", 1997].

5. Mechanisms of psychological defense.

Platonov Yu.P. considered ways of psychological protection of the individual,
which are most significant for her positive interaction in social groups.

1. Denial- this is the desire to avoid new information that is incompatible with existing ideas about oneself.

Protection manifests itself in ignoring potentially alarming information and avoiding it. It is like a barrier located right at the entrance of the perceiving system. It does not allow unwanted information into it, which is then irreversibly lost for a person and subsequently cannot be restored. Thus, denial leads to the fact that some information, either immediately or subsequently, cannot reach consciousness.

When in denial, a person becomes especially inattentive to those areas of life and facets of events that are fraught with trouble for him. For example, a manager can criticize his employee for a long time and emotionally and suddenly discover with indignation that he has long been “switched off” and does not react “in any way” to moral teachings.

Denial can allow a person to preventively (anticipate) isolate himself from traumatic events. This is how, for example, fear of failure works, when a person strives not to find himself in a situation in which he could fail. For many
in people this manifests itself in avoiding competitions or refusing activities in which the person is not
strong, especially compared to others.

2. Ppressure- protection, manifested in forgetting, blocking unpleasant, unwanted information either when it is transferred from perception to memory, or when withdrawn from memory to consciousness. Since in this case the information is already the content of the psyche,
since it was perceived and experienced, it is, as it were, supplied with special marks that
then allow it to be held.

The peculiarity of suppression is that the content of the experienced information is forgotten, and its emotional, motor, vegetative and psychosomatic manifestations can persist, manifesting themselves in obsessive movements and states, errors, slips of the tongue, and slips of the tongue. These symptoms symbolically reflect the connection between actual behavior and suppressed information. To secure traces in long-term memory, they must be emotionally colored in a special way - marked. To remember something, a person needs to return to the state in which he received the information. If then he was angry or upset (for example, by a request to do something), then in order to remember this, he must return to this state again. Since he doesn't want to feel that bad again, he's unlikely to remember. When a person eliminates the thought that he does not want or cannot do something, he says to himself: “It wasn’t really necessary,” “I’m not interested in this, I don’t like it,” thereby revealing a negative emotional labeling.

3. INrepression, unlike suppression, is not associated with turning off information about what happened as a whole from consciousness, but only with forgetting the true, but unacceptable for a person, motive for an action. (Motive is an incentive to perform a specific activity).

Thus, it is not the event itself (action, experience, situation) that is forgotten, but only its cause, the fundamental principle. Having forgotten the true motive, a person replaces it with a false one, hiding the real one from himself and from others.

Repression is a universal means of avoiding internal conflict by eliminating socially undesirable aspirations and drives from consciousness. However, repressed and suppressed drives make themselves felt in neurotic and psychosomatic symptoms (for example, phobias and fears).

Repression is considered a primitive and ineffective psychological defense mechanism for the following reasons:

The repressed still breaks through in consciousness;

Unresolved conflict manifests itself in a high level of anxiety and a feeling of discomfort.

4. Rationalization- this is a defense mechanism associated with the awareness and use in thinking of only that part of the perceived information, thanks to which one’s own behavior appears as well controlled and does not contradict objective circumstances.

Rationalization is a pseudo-rational explanation by a person of his own aspirations, motives for actions, actions that are actually caused by reasons, the recognition of which
would threaten loss of self-respect. Self-affirmation, protection of one’s own “I” - the main
the motive for updating this mechanism of psychological defense of the individual.

5. Substitution is a mechanism of psychological defense against an unpleasant situation, which is based on the transfer of a reaction from an inaccessible object to an accessible one or the replacement of an unacceptable action with an acceptable one. Due to this transfer, the tension created by the unsatisfied need is discharged.

Substitution is the defense that all people (both adults and children) necessarily use in everyday life. Thus, many people often do not have the opportunity not only to punish their offenders for their misdeeds or unfair behavior, but also to simply contradict them. Therefore, pets, parents, children, etc. can act as a “lightning rod” in a situation of anger. Whims that cannot be directed at the leader (an unacceptable object for this) can perfectly well be directed at other performers as an object that is quite acceptable for this ( “That’s who is to blame for everything”). In other words, substitution is the transfer of needs and desires to another, more accessible object. If it is impossible to satisfy a certain need with the help of one item, a person can find another item (more accessible) to satisfy it.

6. Irony in ancient Greek it means “to tell a lie,” “to mock,” “to pretend.” An ironist is a person who “deceives with words.”

The modern understanding of the dual nature of irony is as follows:

Irony is an expressive technique that is opposite to the idea being expressed. I'm talking
the opposite of what I mean. I praise in form, but in essence I blame. And vice versa: in form I humiliate, in essence I exalt, I praise, I “stroke”. Ironically, my “yes” always means “no,” and behind the expression “no” looms a “yes.”

No matter how noble the goal of irony may be, for example, to generate a high idea, to open eyes to something, including oneself, this idea is nevertheless affirmed in irony through negative means. Despite the generosity of irony's intentions, or even despite its selflessness, irony provides self-satisfaction.

A person who uses irony is credited with the traits of a subtle mind, observation, slowness, and the inactivity of a sage (not instant reactivity).

As a mental state, irony is a changed sign of my experience of a situation from “minus” to “plus”. Anxiety was replaced by confidence, hostility - by condescension... A person is in states that are autonomous relative to the situation, another person,
subject: I am already a subject rather than an object of these situations, and therefore I have the opportunity
management of these states.

Irony as a mental process transforms what is terrible, scary, intolerable, hostile, alarming for me into the opposite.

7. Dream- these are unconscious actions of the “I” in a state of sleep, which can be accompanied by emotional experiences.

A dream can be considered as a special type of substitution, through which an inaccessible action is transferred to another plane - from the real world to the world of dreams. Suppressing the inaccessibility complex, it accumulates energy in the unconscious, threatening the conscious world with its invasion. Secret repentance, remorse, subconscious fears lead to their breakthrough in a dream. The task of a dream is to express complex feelings in pictures and give a person the opportunity to experience them, thereby replacing real situations.

8. Sublimation- This is one of the highest and most effective human defense mechanisms. It implements the replacement of unattainable goals in accordance with the highest social values.

Sublimation is the switching of impulses that are socially undesirable in a given situation (aggression, sexual energy) to other forms of activity that are socially desirable for the individual and society. Aggressive energy, being transformed, can be sublimated (discharged) in sports (boxing, wrestling) or in strict methods of education (for example, with too demanding parents and teachers), eroticism - in friendship, in creativity, etc. When the direct discharge of instinctive (aggressive) , sexual) desires is impossible, there is an activity in which these impulses can be discharged.

Sublimation realizes the replacement of an instinctive goal in accordance with the highest social values. The forms of substitution are varied. For adults, this is not only a retreat into a dream, but also a retreat into work, religion, and all kinds of hobbies. In children, regression reactions and immature forms of behavior are also accompanied by replacement with the help of rituals and obsessive actions, which act as complexes of involuntary reactions that allow a person
satisfy a forbidden unconscious desire.

WorldVdistrictnacPconstantlyatgets complicatedPthereforennecessaryatwordsvital activityisPpermanentatcomplicationhprotectionAnd Rexpansioneerepertoire.

9. Identification- a type of projection associated with the unconscious identification of oneself with another person, the transference to oneself of feelings and qualities that are desired, but inaccessible.

Identification is the elevation of oneself to another by expanding the boundaries of one’s own “I”. Identification is associated with a process in which a person, as if including another into his “I,” borrows his thoughts, feelings and actions. This allows him to overcome his feelings of inferiority and anxiety, to change his “I” in such a way that it is better adapted to the social environment, and this is the protective function of the identification mechanism.

Typically, identification manifests itself in the performance of real or imagined roles. For example, children play mother-daughter, school, war, transformers, etc., consistently play different roles and perform various actions: punish child dolls, hide from enemies, protect the weak. A person identifies with those whom he loves more, whom he values ​​more highly, thereby creating the basis for self-esteem.

10. Fantasy(dream) is a very common reaction to disappointment and failure. For example, an insufficiently physically developed person can get pleasure from dreaming of participating in the World Championship, and a loser athlete can get pleasure from imagining all sorts of troubles happening to his opponent, which makes his feelings easier.

Fantasies serve as compensation. They help maintain weak hopes,
soften feelings of inferiority, reduce the traumatic impact of insults and insults. Freud said that a happy person never fantasizes, only a dissatisfied person does this.

11. Transfer- This is a protective mechanism that ensures the satisfaction of desire on substitute objects.

The simplest and most common type of transfer is displacement - substitution of objects for the outpouring of accumulated negative energy of “thanatos” in the form of aggression and resentment.

Your anger, unreacted to the true culprit, is transferred to someone who is even weaker than you, even lower on the ladder of the social hierarchy, to a subordinate, who, in turn, transfers it further down, etc. The chains of displacement can be endless. Its links can be both living beings and inanimate things (broken dishes during family scandals, broken windows of train cars, etc.).

12. Projection- a psychological defense mechanism associated with the unconscious transfer of one’s own unacceptable feelings, desires and aspirations to another person. It is based on the unconscious rejection of one’s experiences, doubts, attitudes and attributing them to other people in order to shift responsibility for what happens inside the “I” to the outside world.

No matter how wrong a person himself is, he is ready to blame everyone except himself. Declares that he is not loved, although in reality he does not love himself, reproaches others for his own mistakes and shortcomings and attributes to them his own vices and weaknesses. By narrowing the boundaries of the “I,” this allows the individual to treat internal problems as if they were happening outside, and to overcome displeasure as if it came from outside, and not due to internal reasons. If the “enemy” is outside, then more radical and effective methods of punishment can be applied to him, usually used in relation to external “harmful” people, rather than gentle, more acceptable methods for oneself.

13. Introjection- this is the tendency to appropriate the beliefs and attitudes of other people without criticism, without trying to change them and make them your own. A person endows himself with traits and properties of other people. For example, he takes on the functions of an annoying mentor, because the manifestation of such a trait in other people annoys or traumatizes him. In order to relieve internal conflict and avoid psychological discomfort, a person appropriates
beliefs, values ​​and attitudes of other people.

The earliest introject is parental teaching, which is absorbed by a person without critically thinking about its value.

An example of introjection: an impressionable man tries to hold back his tears because he has learned from his parents that an adult should not cry in the presence of strangers. Or a person constantly criticizes himself because he has internalized (introjected) his parents’ attitude towards him.

The likelihood of this method of protection occurring is the higher, the stronger and (or) longer the influence of external or internal blockers of desires, on the one hand, and the more impossible it is to remove these blockers and more fully fulfill one’s desires and achieve one’s goals, on the other. In this case, the impossibility of eliminating the frustrator is accompanied by the displacement of negative energy on the replacement object.

14. AppealWithsubjectProtiv Withfuck you results in the formation of physical and mental symptoms, i.e., signs of illness. Physical bodily symptoms include: cold feet and hands, sweating, cardiac arrhythmia, dizziness, severe headaches, high or low blood pressure, muscle spasms, dermatitis, bronchial asthma, etc.

15. Depersonalization(from Latin de - negation, person - face) - this is the perception of other people as depersonalized, devoid of individuality representatives of a certain group. If the subject does not allow himself to think of others as people who have feelings and personality, he protects himself from perceiving them on an emotional level.

With depersonalization, other people are perceived only as the embodiment of their social role: they are patients, doctors, teachers. The act of depersonalizing other people can “protect” the subject to a certain extent. This makes it possible, for example, for doctors to treat their patients without experiencing their suffering. In addition, this allows them to hide their real feelings (like or dislike) behind a professional mask.

6. CONCLUSION.

Working automatically, psychological protection
reduces tension, improves well-being and thus
most adapts a person to the situation, because it reduces
causes anxiety and fear. However, it is often required from a person
there is too much strength to hold on to your fears and
desires « onPrivyazi." In this case, protection creates for
personality has many limitations, which inevitably leads
person to isolation and isolation. Significant
wasting energy on keeping oneself “in case" can
feel like chronic fatigue or increased
general level of anxiety.

Thus, if the defense mechanisms of the psyche
a person is weak, fear and discomfort inevitably over-
fill his soul. At the same time, to maintain the work
you protection mechanisms at the optimal level require-
Xia PpermanentRspendinguhenergy. And these costs can
be so significant, and even overwhelming
for the individual, which in some cases can lead to
the appearance of specific neurotic symptoms and
to adjustment disorders.

It can be seen that the problem of psychological defense
contains tscentralPcontradiction between a person’s desire to maintain mental balance and
those losses that result from excessive invasion
protection On the one hand, there is unconditional benefit from all vi-
dovs of protection designed to reduce the accumulation of
higher human tension by distorting the original
information or corresponding change in behavior
nia. On the other hand, their excessive inclusion does not
allows the individual to realize the objective, true
situation, interact adequately and creatively with
world [Granovskaya R.M., Nikolskaya I.M. Personal protection: psychological mechanisms. _SPb.: Knowledge, 1998].

... – intellectualization and rationalization. I. PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS“ACTIVITIES” OF INTELLECTUALIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION, THEIR FUNCTIONS Protective mechanism intellectualization Protective mechanism intellectualization is...

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Creativity and overcoming stereotypes. 1994. - 192 p.

The book by famous St. Petersburg psychologists, dedicated to the problems of creativity, self-disclosure of personality and the removal of psychological barriers, opens a new series “Authorities”. This series will include scientific, popular science and methodological works by authoritative sociologists, psychologists, teachers, dedicated to current problems of harmonious personal development in modern society

The publication is aimed at a wide range of readers.

ISBN 5-83-080080-2

@ 1994, R. M. Granovskaya, Yu. S. Krizhanskaya © 1994, OMS Publishing House, design with the assistance of JSC Dorval

The design of the book uses the works of S. Krasauskas, the original layout was made in the Tex system

Introduction

We are increasingly dissatisfied with the society in which we live. This understandable dissatisfaction gives rise to criticism, which, however, in many cases does not clarify, but rather obscures, the essence of the problems facing us. Often, common patterns of criticism serve as a kind of collective psychological protection for all of us, preventing us from realizing the true reasons for our failures (so that we do not think too badly about ourselves) and at the same time not providing a chance to change the situation.

We tend to see the reason for many, if not all, shortcomings in the history of our society. We explain them by the long-term dominance of totalitarian ideology and various remnants of the past. Delving deeper into history, we trace the formation of “national character,” finding the origins of modern problems in the Tatar-Mongol yoke or serfdom. Trying to interpret the current state of affairs, we

we compare the influence on the consciousness of people of socialism and capitalism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism, etc.

Such research is certainly interesting and productive. However, they are unable to show us a way out of the current situation, since, on the one hand, history cannot be changed, and on the other, it is unclear what constructive conclusions can be drawn from them by a specific person, who, apparently, must transform the situation.

At the same time, most of the criticism now heard in our society can be formulated in terms of the impoverishment of creativity, the dire need V intellectually proactive individuals capable of creative transformations.

We are dissatisfied with the growing unification of our private - family and individual - life, the forced same clothing, food, entertainment, thoughts, stereotypes, the clear hostility of society to any form of originality or simply difference from the generally accepted.

We are dissatisfied with the all-pervasive mass culture, which displaces genuine culture and is incompatible with any kind of spirituality and individualism. V any of its manifestations.

We are dissatisfied with our education system, which creates conformists and drills stereotypes into people's heads, creating people with a “complete” education in all senses, instead of educating original thinkers.

We are dissatisfied with the stagnation and lag in our science, the rarity of original and productive scientists, and the lack of bold ideas and large-scale projects.

We lack proactive, spiritually free people with fresh approaches to current problems. We desperately need their creative ideas, bold projects and new ideas about life. We come across stereotypes everywhere: in thinking, behavior, social life - and we do not know how to overcome them. If we could become a little more open and relaxed, a little less susceptible to stereotypes, a little more spontaneous - how much less problems we would have! We lack creativity, a creative approach to life, creativity in all its forms.

It would probably be possible to increase the amount of creativity “per capita” with the help of special training or education. Is it possible? And what you need to do? First of all, it is necessary to have at least some clear idea of ​​the internal nature of creative processes, of those obstacles that usually interfere with a person’s creative manifestations. However, this is where the main difficulties are revealed.

When talking about creativity, you rarely hear combinations of “more” or “less creative,” although they also say “more sociable” or “less intelligent.” It seems that in our everyday understanding, creative manifestations are never relative, they are always absolute: creativity is either there or not, there is no third option. This denial of the “continuum” of creative manifestations leads to the false belief that it is impossible to develop and expand existing creative abilities, that “you can’t teach creativity.” At the same time, this testifies to the complete non-subjection of the creative process to subjective perception and reflection, which also contributes to the conviction of its complete uncontrollability, surprise and unpredictability.

The same common belief seems to underlie the difficulties of professional creativity researchers when they want to define it. IN

Most known definitions define creativity not as a process, but through a description of the properties of the result, i.e., as a certain activity as a result of which new knowledge, forms of behavior, etc. are obtained, with a further definition of their “novelty.”

At the same time, it is obvious that if we cannot at least schematically and simplistically imagine the mechanism for the emergence of creative solutions and the conditions under which this mechanism can work, and if we think exclusively about the results of creativity, then we will not be able to offer any ways to increase the creative potential of the individual, and even more so any methods of teaching creativity.

It seems reasonable to consider the following diagram. What is usually considered the result of creativity seems new, unexpected or unlikely With from a certain point of view, in a certain coordinate system. The feeling of surprise that always accompanies the perception of something unexpected and unlikely often serves as a subjective sign of the novelty of the result. However, an unlikely event in one system may look like a moderately probable or even ordinary event from the perspective of another system. (So, for example, a person who “invented the wheel” in some foreign field will consider his solution new and creative, although from the point of view of a specialist it may be quite stereotypical.)

Creativity requires the ability to go beyond “one’s” coordinate system, the usual ways of solving a problem, one’s idea of ​​the world, the ability to move, at least briefly, to another platform, another point of view from which a person can see a solution invisible from “one’s world.” . However, such transitions from one subjective world to another are very difficult; many things in a person resist them. On the other hand, there are situations and conditions in which such movements are significantly facilitated. This book is devoted to a description of these situations, psychological techniques and organizational conditions that make it possible to temporarily abandon habitual stereotypes and, therefore, facilitate the search for new solutions in various fields of activity.

The first chapter describes in detail the structure and mechanism of functioning of the world model - the main coordinate system that determines a person’s perception of the world around him.

The second chapter examines the psychological defense system - a mechanism for maintaining the integrity and immutability of the world model, which blocks information that does not correspond to a person’s ideas about the world, and sometimes prevents the generation of new solutions if they may somehow contradict currently existing ideas.

The third chapter describes behaviors that can help a person overcome the pressure of individual censorship, weaken their own subconscious attitudes, increase sensitivity to the new and unexpected, and increase confidence in their own decisions. Here the focus is on how a person can help himself overcome the most common barriers to thinking and behavior.

Chapter four reveals some of the most common thinking patterns that inhibit creativity and describes techniques to reduce their influence. All of them are associated with various ways of forming a new perspective, a different view of the situation, allowing one to step away from the pressure of familiar and generally accepted approaches.

The fifth chapter of the book is devoted to teaching ways to combat stereotypes, but not individually, but in groups. The deep psychological influence of the group is shown, facilitating and accelerating the “removal of the façade”, emancipation, which allows the development of a variety of new strategies for solving problems. A hypothesis is put forward and substantiated that the emergence of new group techniques and their effectiveness are closely related to their focus on overcoming specific types of psychological barriers.

Chapter six outlines group methods for solving creative problems. It is shown how the development of an individual’s creative capabilities depends on the style of thinking.

The seventh chapter illustrates on a specific task - adult education - the inhibitory role of a set of stereotypes and barriers in the process of creative development. Techniques for overcoming age and professional stereotypes are described.

The eighth chapter is also illustrative. She demonstrates the importance of neutralizing psychological defense using the example of the problem of national conflicts. The positive and negative aspects of ethnic stereotypes are revealed, their extreme stability and inertia, violations of logic and perception under the pressure of ethnocentrism.

In general, the book represents the further development of the authors’ ideas regarding the mechanisms of creativity, communication difficulties and the structure of psychological barriers set out in their previous books: R. M. Granovskaya, “Elements of Practical Psychology”; R. M. Granovskaya, I. Ya. Bereznaya, “Intuition and artificial intelligence”; Yu. S. Krizhanskaya, V. P. Tretyakov, “Grammar of Communication”.

also all structures of individuality. R.M. Granovskaya and Yu.S. talk about this in great detail. Krizhanskaya in her book “Creativity and Overcoming Stereotypes”: “the consciousness of modern man is blocked by various mental attitudes, stereotypes of perception and behavior imposed by family and society.” The main contradiction of our time lies, according to the authors, in the fact that there is “... a struggle between the growing tendency to standardize the inner world and the need for its individualization.”

To overcome stereotypes imposed from the outside, it is necessary to create an internal, creative stereotype characteristic of a creative personality. A creative personality has a “dynamic stereotype”, which is based on a developed and systematized sequence of actions, an orientation towards seeing what is unique and new in any object, considering it as a fragment of the universal, reflecting the spirit of the time and the main, “individual” idea of ​​the artist. It is by automatically switching on the “creative chain” when considering or imagining an image object that one can overcome the established standard.

Such a pattern can be overcome by a task set from the outside or from the inside. Students were asked to complete two tasks in sequence. The first was to depict a “sad tree”, which provoked all students to a standard solution - for all of them it was drawn with drooping “weeping” branches and was practically no different from one another. The second task - to draw a tree that would cause pity for it on the part of the viewer - led to an "explosion" of individual creativity, and everyone drew it in their own and original way.

7.4. Balance of nervous processes and interaction of the hemisphere

The concept of balance can be viewed from different perspectives. The classical version considers the balance in strength and mobility of the process of excitation and inhibition.

Thus, sanguine temperament is defined as strong, balanced, agile. Choleric temperament is characterized by the strength of the excitatory Process and the weakness of the inhibitory Process, i.e., imbalance in strength and mobility. The process of excitation that occurs easily and quickly has inertia and duration. This is why this type of nervous system is called “uncontrolled.” The process of inhibition, on the contrary, occurs with great difficulty, extremely slowly, but disappears easily and quickly. This can be seen especially well in the process of sleep, when when falling asleep is difficult, a person is awakened by every rustle.

The phlegmatic temperament is characterized, like the sanguine one, by the strength of both processes, but at the same time it is distinguished by their inertia and slowness. Melancholic - weakness of two processes, which is compensated either by high mobility, the inability to concentrate for a long time on one object (as in children), or by passivity, indifference to everything that can expend already weak energy. Such people, who are given the name “torpid type,” are difficult to stir up and interest; they seem to sleep with their eyes open.

The concept of “type of temperament” is thus built on a combination of leading qualities - strength, mobility and balance of basic nervous processes. When one quality changes, for example mobility, another type is formed. This principle of nature’s creativity must be taken into account when self-development and creating images, characters, and types of works of art.

Natural inclinations include interaction and balance in the activity of the two hemispheres of the brain, each of which performs its own function.

I.P. Pavlov identified two human types - artistic and mental - based on the first and second signaling systems. This division was later confirmed in studies of the function of the right and left hemispheres. The right hemisphere is in charge of the direct, sensory reflection of reality, primary signaling, while the left hemisphere is in charge of verbal symbolic, secondary signaling functions. The identical development of the two hemispheres makes it possible to combine intellectual, cognitive mechanisms with creative ones, since such interaction is necessary for all types of creativity, is the foundation of its generalized functions, and underlies creativity.

Bright natural inclinations, equally expressed in the strength of the two hemispheres, determine the abilities for various types of activities that existed among the greatest geniuses of different eras - Leonardo da Vinci, M.V. Lomonosov, A. Einstein, etc. They have both needs and abilities for the exact sciences combined with artistic ones.

Hence, as creativity researchers write, if a creative person has not found his theme in one area of ​​activity, he easily switches to another - he becomes a creative organizer,

researcher, teacher or combines different types of activities. Abilities for different types of activities are considered as a guarantee of a person’s true internal freedom and independence from the social environment, strict dependence on one type of activity and attachment to it.

This ability for various types of activities is given by nature to a few. However, abilities for activity develop in the process of activity, and it is necessary to use all opportunities to form a variety of abilities that require different types of creativity. As mentioned above, a creative personality combines abilities for various types of intellectual creativity.

The combination of teaching, research and artistic and creative activities, which students of the art and graphic faculty of the Pedagogical University are focused on, provide an excellent opportunity to develop abilities for different types of creativity and interaction of the hemispheres. Pedagogical creativity requires the development of operational intelligence, similar to the intelligence of a commander or organizer, leader. The ability to see each and every student, organize and direct their activities to achieve a specific goal, taking into account individual differences, and find ways out of a critical situation are the basis of operational creativity, which is necessary primarily for self-organization. Operational creativity always involves the right-hemisphere holistic perception and the left-hemisphere analysis of the situation. An equally important role is played by scientific research abilities, which are based on the independent discovery of patterns that underlie all processes occurring at the present stage in the world around us, starting with identifying the best methods for developing skills in children. The ability to discover patterns and convey them in the language of science is trained when writing abstracts, term papers and dissertations. A non-standard, creative approach to completing such tasks is especially important for those who do not have natural inclinations for scientific creativity, which means the need for knowledge, which is the first step to creativity, has not been formed. The study predominantly involves the left hemisphere.

Thus, when mastering pedagogical and research skills in the learning process, it is possible to correct the missing components in the structure of creative abilities.

The listed properties of the nervous system are organically included in the qualitative characteristics of the emotional-volitional sphere, despite their independent significance and direction.

Chapter 8. Regular block: emotions and feelings

Emotions and feelings, according to some authors, are the basis of individual uniqueness. We judge a person, as mentioned above, on the basis of what a person wants, how he relates to himself, to the world around him, what he enjoys and what he strives for. Since creative abilities are based on the disclosure of individuality, it is on the basis of the emotional sphere that the needs for creativity can be formed.

Emotions and feelings are often considered synonymous. At the same time, emotions are part of the structure of neuro-physiological natural inclinations, have their localization in the subcortical structures of the brain and perform a specific function at all stages of mental reflection, starting with contact with the environment, central processing and regulation of output activity. Emotions, as well as the characteristics of the nervous system, determine the formal-dynamic characteristics of the course of emotional processes, while feelings have a meaningful characteristic.

Feelings are formed under the influence of external factors, they underlie relationships to objects and phenomena of reality, to specific types of activity, they are a product of intellectual and ideological activity, they develop under the influence of the “general emotional background” created by a specific social situation and the media, as well as when directed, normative education both in the family and at school.

Feelings can be defined as “emotional needs”, which are formed on the basis of both natural inclinations and social influences. Ultimately, feelings become a stable characteristic of a person. At the same time, the formation of feelings is based both on the general laws of emotions and on the peculiarities of their individual refraction. Hence it is necessary to know the function of emotions, their structure and laws of flow.

8.1. Functions of emotions

The main functions of emotions are activation, regulatory and informational. The main function of emotions is to organize interaction with the environment and adaptation of each individual to it. Such interaction is determined by internal and external factors.

First function of emotions- maintenance and preservation of life. First of all, every living organism experiences certain needs, the satisfaction of which depends on the environment. All these needs, dictated by the laws of life described above, are internal motivators of active interaction with the environment and are mediated by emotions. The feeling of hunger and thirst pushes us to search for means to satisfy them. The emerging need for water or food causes neuromuscular tension, accompanied by negative experiences until this need is satisfied. Relieving neuromuscular tension is accompanied by a positive emotion, a feeling of pleasure.

Second function of emotions- mobilization of additional resources when encountering non-standard situations that can be of a purely personal or socially and socially significant nature, for example, war, natural disasters, victory, etc. The function of emotions in such cases is to generalize excitement, capturing the intellectual and motor sphere, which necessary to comprehend what happened, as well as to mobilize muscular energy to escape, fight, express joy, and rejoicing. Emotions of different signs - fear, joy, anger, displeasure and grief - cause different experiences and external motor expressions, which is especially sensitively captured and conveyed by artists.

The third function of emotions- communicative, uniting people. Emotions underlie the unification of people, the choice of partners, friends, like-minded people, the basis of patriotism, heroic deeds, etc. The communicative function of emotions in its facial and bodily manifestations plays an equally important role. This primary form of communication, preserved in animals, has not yet lost its significance in humans. The “language of emotions” is all bodily manifestations - body weight, posture, hands, facial expressions, their combination. The language of fine art is based on the “language of emotions”, only presented in a static form.

Emotions play a special role in communications through empathy, empathic vision, when a person takes on the experiences of other people or joins the emotional rhythm of others. Such empathy is based on the resonant principle. Each emotional center in the human brain has its own rhythmic structure, when excited, transmission occurs, inducing a rhythm to a similar center in the brain of another person, and he begins to experience the same emotion. This encourages not only direct empathy and the desire to help a specific person, but also entire nations and states.

All art is based on such empathy. However, such empathy is achieved if the artist relies on the general laws of emotions. In addition, knowledge of the general laws of emotions is necessary to anticipate the audience’s reaction to the content and form of presentation of visual material.

8.2. General laws of emotions

Emotions, based on a person’s internal needs and arising as a reaction to external Stimuli, have their own specific laws of both occurrence and course.

Let's look at emotions from the perspective of the needs discussed above. The needs themselves are divided into vital (biological), social and ideal, and have different directions and sources of satisfaction. Vital needs are always objective. To maintain life, not only food is required, but also items necessary for protection from external temperature changes (clothing, housing), means of transportation, and other household items that help a person survive (see Fig. 13).

Rice. 13. Table of emotions

Social and ideal needs are related to the functioning of the person himself in society. The satisfaction of these needs depends on the abilities of the person himself and the external conditions that allow these abilities to be realized in action.

The general laws of emotions can best be represented through the “information theory” developed by P.V. Simonov, in which he considers the interaction of internal needs and information from the external environment regarding their satisfaction. It is presented by him in the form of a formula, according to which the awakening of evaluative, i.e., positive and negative emotions occurs:

The formula is deciphered as follows: emotions (E) are derived from the needs (P) in a given object and the difference between the existing (S) and necessary (N) components in the external environment to satisfy them.

According to the laws of arithmetic, if there are no needs for any object and are equal to 0, then emotions will also be equal to zero, i.e. the object will not cause any reaction. If the needs for it exist, but what is necessary and existing to satisfy them is zero, then emotions will also be zero.

Emotional reactions arise only when there is a mismatch between what is existing and what is necessary. If there is more of what is expected and necessary, then a reaction of pleasure arises (plus multiplied by plus gives a positive result), and vice versa, if what is expected and necessary to satisfy the need is greater than what exists, then a negative emotion arises, according to the same laws of arithmetic (plus by minus gives minus).

If the difference between the necessary and the existing is zero, then emotions will be zero. Thus, the first condition for the emergence of emotions is the presence of demand for an object, needs for it, as well as the nature of the supply from the external environment. Emotions determine the degree of significance of satisfying a particular need, a kind of “currency of the brain.”

The same “subject” is art. However, the need for it arises if it satisfies other, fundamental emotional and intellectual, spiritual needs

person, which includes the need for novelty. Everything stereotypical, monotonous, no matter what qualities it has, ceases to bring pleasure. Beauty and perfection do not tolerate a template, a lack of individual originality, or uniqueness. Adaptation occurs to everything: good and bad. To the good rather than to the bad. To a strong stimulus rather than to a weak one. A person cannot live without emotions that give the feeling of life. Therefore, fashion, styles, trends in art, architecture, etc. change.

Positive and negative emotions have their own specifics.

Thus, the experience of positive emotions tends to infinity, and negative ones - to zero. The desire for positive experiences arises instinctively because they are “healing” in a purely physical sense. This has been experimentally proven in animal experiments. When animals were implanted with cancer cells and the pleasure center was irritated, the cancer cells were blocked and died. When such implantation was accompanied by the activation of negative emotions, the cancer cells grew and led to the death of the animal.

The second specificity of emotions: positive emotions are short, and negative ones are long-lasting (see Fig. 14). A person is involved in the search for new sources of positive experiences almost constantly. The satisfaction of these Needs is sublimated in art. A person accepts and experiences joy from a work of art that meets his fundamental needs. Vital needs include a person’s desire for social and individual freedom and self-realization. Therefore, when an artist freely and boldly expresses his unique individuality, deviates from established standards and “unexpectedly and accurately” expresses his thoughts and attitude towards what is depicted, brings “truth and goodness” in his works, then he gives a cathartic release to these human needs. The need for individual freedom and self-actualization is organically connected with the need to join, to find the individual meaning of one’s life in the universal, in emotional contact with other people.

Rice. 14. Positive emotions Positive emotions are short and easily forgotten.

Rice. 15. Negative emotions Negative emotions are long lasting and are remembered for a long time.

Art, reflecting the universal in the individual, specific, helps a person to understand the meaning of such a connection through an individual act to join the universal. Artist,

integrating in his work the “eternal” with the pains and problems of a specific historical era, through this specific thing evokes an emotional reaction, empathy, encouraging action and finding the individual meaning of life. The same applies to the need for emotional contact as a means of communication with other people and the world. Experiencing the same feeling when perceiving a work of art is itself an act of uniting people with a common emotion and thought.

Spiritual ones include the need for human perfection, his ability to transform the environment, and create new forms of matter. When reflecting reality, the artist seems to compete with nature in the ability to create something no less perfect than nature itself. Therefore, a landscape or portrait painted by an artist causes greater delight than a similar reality. The combination of the beauty of reality and the artist’s skill in conveying it is a prerequisite for the emergence of an aesthetic experience.

The need to experience positive emotions lies at the heart of creativity. The process of creativity is dialectical: the period of search is often accompanied by the “pangs of creativity,” i.e., negative emotions, but is rewarded by the sudden discovery of what is sought, “magical synthesis,” “inspiration,” which are accompanied by such a supreme manifestation of joy that eclipses all others.

A. Rowe, researching the biographies of great creators, found the only thing in common in their biographies - an introduction to the joy of creative discovery in adolescence.

Therefore, the development of creative abilities begins with the formation of needs for cognition and improvement of the creative type of activity. However, all the needs outlined above entail a kind of correction through individual differences in the emotional sphere, which in turn gives rise to needs for a certain functioning. To develop needs, it is necessary to rely on the individual characteristics of the emotional sphere.

8.3. Individual differences in the emotional sphere

Individual differences in the emotional sphere have dynamic and content (modal) characteristics. The main individual characteristics in the dynamic characteristics of the emotional sphere are determined by emotional sensitivity and reactivity, the intensity and duration of emotional reactions, the speed of transition from one emotional state to another, and endurance to stressful situations. All these dynamic characteristics are closely related to the typological characteristics of the nervous system, which are described above, and are also corrected by the main individual differences - in the dominance of emotions of different modalities: aggression, fear, joy or displeasure, each of which performs its own function in contact with the environment and in the social organization and distribution of roles.

On an individual level, emotions, like the neurophysiological inclinations described above, are characterized by strength, duration and lability in different forms of occurrence: mood, relationships, reactions to the situation.

In addition, the modal characteristics of emotions - Dominance of fear, joy, aggression, displeasure-pleasure are significant indicators of personality.

The emotional reaction is accompanied by ascending and descending influence, that is, it ascends to the cortical analyzers, sharpening their sensitivity, and descends to the autonomic nervous system, determining readiness for action.

It is associated, first of all, with the assessment of objects occurring outside of events and phenomena, from the position of their positive or negative significance for the preservation of life. Along with the evaluative function, emotions automatically include a certain algorithm of actions necessary to avoid or destroy danger.

The dominance of each emotion is determined by the predominant strength of the functioning of the corresponding centers and is manifested in states, relationships and reactions. They are the basis of individual needs for a certain social status in society, which is determined by the number of influences exerted on other people.

The dominance of aggression in natural inclinations is a kind of preparation for the formation of a social leader, defender, conqueror, legislator, creator. The dominance of such an emotion gives rise to a desire for self-affirmation, affirmation of one’s self. Such self-affirmation occurs in a variety of ways, starting with the child’s power over parents, peers, and ending

unlimited power and tyranny of the monarch. Such people become the main ones in the family, leaders in teams, they strive for official or hidden power over the minds and destinies of people.

It is a highly socialized and effective emotion. In order to be a leader, the ruler of thoughts or destinies, a person needs to know and be able to do a lot, be more perfect than others, have great confidence in his abilities, and have high performance. Therefore, a person with a predominance of such emotions, as a rule, is in a constantly active and tense state, feels the need for self-improvement and achieving new results in activities.

The attitude towards other people for a person with the dominance of an aggressive complex is characterized by a “top-down” position, that is, confidence in one’s own rightness and the desire to convince or impose one’s beliefs and principles on other people. The reaction to a critical situation is always active, accompanied by the desire to intervene in what is happening, establish order, stop panic, and help the weak.

All these qualities are very favorable for creativity, but under one condition - if self-affirmation does not turn into an end in itself. The desire for self-affirmation limits the field of consciousness, concentrating it on one’s own person, and turns creativity into a kind of competition with colleagues in the profession.

To be creative, you need to affirm not yourself, but what people need. Contact with people, knowledge and understanding of their emotions and needs, forecasting future needs are an inexhaustible source of creativity. To paraphrase L. Tolstoy regarding good and bad people, it can be argued that a real artist is one who lives primarily with his own thoughts and other people’s feelings, while a bad artist, on the contrary, lives with his feelings and other people’s thoughts.

The dominance of the fear center structures another type of emotional individuality. Fear is the emotion of avoiding danger and anticipating it. Therefore, people with a dominant emotion of fear are characterized by a state of anxiety, anticipation of trouble, visions of danger, and the desire to be a performer, but not an initiator of new things. Relationship with other people from the bottom up. Lack of faith in one's own strengths and capabilities and exaggeration of others, fear of criticism and high self-criticism. The reaction to a critical situation is panicky, with the desire to run away, hide, and sit out in a safe place.

A very interesting difference between the first and second types of emotionality was observed when the center of aggression was irritated in the leader of a troop of monkeys and in a monkey of lower status, with dominance of fear. Irritation of the center of aggression in the leader caused an attack on a possible rival, and in a monkey of lower status - on itself. She would start scratching her reflection in the mirror or her body.

For creativity, the emotion of fear is favorable for awakening imagination, foreseeing the future (according to the proverb “Fear has big eyes”), but it has a very negative effect on the ability to show what has been created. Many people with a rich imagination and dominance of fear create, like Kafka, “on the table”, fearing possible misunderstanding and criticism. Anxious people require special conditions to be creative.

People with a dominant center of pleasure, joy, are specialists in seeing “the beauty and joy of being” and the desire to affirm their vision in others. Such people are characterized by a state of joyful optimism, selective sensitivity to the positive side of all phenomena. They see beauty even in small things and do not pay attention to the unpleasant little things in life. This is most clearly expressed in jokes about optimists and pessimists, one of whom sees a half-full bottle, and the other half-empty. The main goal of their life is to establish harmony and peace, to provide assistance to those in need. Their attitude towards people is always “on an equal footing” with everyone. They are not afraid of superiors, and accept people of lower social rank. They always treat people kindly and are ready to help them. The reaction to a critical situation is active. For example, when they see a quarrel or fight, they intervene in it, trying to establish peace and harmony.

Joy is not a direct internal incentive to creativity, like the need for self-affirmation or anxiety for the future in the emotional constructs described above. Joy lives in the present, which does not require change or transformation of the existing. Therefore, it forms a special style of creativity aimed at capturing what is beautiful, amazing, unusual, joyful or funny. The creative process itself gives the artist pleasure and is accompanied by improvisation and the discovery of new twists and colors. From here, by

According to many theorists and researchers of creativity, joy is an essential component of artistic creativity, giving it the necessary lightness, naturalness and courage. It is this feeling that gives the work kindness and truth, making it attractive to the viewer.

The dominance of displeasure in a person’s emotional structure makes him a “specialist”

V recording negative phenomena of reality. The main state of such people is pessimism and dissatisfaction with everything around them, a vision of the shortcomings and injustices of life, the imperfections of public organizations, the structure of power and human relations. The attitude towards people always has a negative connotation: they either feel sorry for people or are indignant at their vices. They react to negative events with sarcasm and view them as confirmation of the justice of their worldview. They are driven to creativity by the same reality, but only based on a generalization, on the historical past, on what is typical and eternal in human society.

Thus, the emotional structure of individuality determines the motivation for creativity and interest in different aspects of reality. In works of art, in which the author, by definition of his most professional ability, necessarily shows his individual position, you can always see his emotional structure and determine whether he is evil or good, which side of reality he accepts or rejects.

Dominant emotions are only those extreme points from which it is necessary to count the influence of emotions on various tendencies in the formation of feelings, relationships, and needs for a certain functioning.

Individual differences themselves depend on the combination of strength of different emotional structures, and on the specific historical era in which the creators live and which they involuntarily reflect in their works, and on those feelings that are formed in them depending on life experience and intuitive understandings those needs of the audience that must be taken into account in the progressive development of humanity. All these factors determine those directions and trends in the art of different eras, which allow us to feel the spirit of a particular historical time.

V the commonality and diversity of emotional perception of it by artists.

The artist himself may experience different periods in his work, associated with certain mental states (for example, Rembrandt’s self-portrait with Saskia on his lap and his last self-portrait convey completely different moods of their author). If emotions must be taken into account in their spontaneous manifestation in creativity, both in form and content, then feelings are the main object of education through the means of art. Therefore, every artist needs to know the laws of education of feelings.

8.4. Feelings and the laws of their development

As mentioned above, feelings are formed on the basis of natural inclinations and social influences.

External factors influencing the formation of feelings can be divided into:

a) involuntarily, under the influence of upbringing and the influence of a specific social environment - ideology, politics, media,

b) based on personal experience - positive or negative reinforcement of communication with other people, behavior and activities,

c) on the basis of intellectual and social experience - the formation of moral and ethical feelings (sense of duty, responsibility, patriotism),

d) on the basis of the directed development of feelings.

The first factor is the influence of the social environment, which is especially acutely felt during periods of reforms and restructuring, during periods of economic, political and social crises. During such periods, all types of feelings are activated, based on the emotions of fear and aggression, displeasure and joy. “In the process of turning emotions into feelings, a kind of socialization and humanization of emotions occurs.” Along with rampant crime, increased uncertainty, displeasure and fear, there begins an increased focus on the troubles and suffering of the people, and the awakening of humanity. The media constantly emphasizes negative phenomena in society.

The second factor is individual experience of interaction with the environment. A person’s attitudes towards various phenomena of reality are influenced by the frequency of positive or negative reinforcements from the external environment.

This is especially clearly demonstrated in experiments on animals that were carried out with splitting the brain - cutting off the connections between the right and left hemispheres. The experiments were as follows.

In monkeys, when the connection between the hemispheres is interrupted, two independent areas of contact with the environment are formed while the emotional centers are preserved. In this case, each eye is connected to only one hemisphere. The essence of the experiment was that the monkey developed different “emotional attitudes” towards the same object in different hemispheres with different reinforcement. To do this, no-turn, one eye and then the other eye were covered with a bandage. The open right eye, for example, was shown an object, accompanied by a complex of pleasant sensations for the monkey, and then the same object was shown to the left eye, accompanied by a complex of unpleasant irritations for the animal. Soon, when an object appeared with the right eye open, the monkey showed a complex of joyful animation, and with the left eye open, the same object caused a reaction of fear, panic, attempts to escape from the machine, and a squeal.

Thus, the same object began to evoke different reactions in two hemispheres of the same

And the same brain depending on reinforcement.

IN In human life, there are many examples of the formation of negative or positive relationships under the influence of censure or approval of behavior or activity. As mentioned above, the need for emotional contact is necessary for choosing a path. This is especially evident in creativity, when failures or achievements cause either a blockade or the awakening of a person’s creativity. One of the main conditions is a general attitude towards the category of values ​​that exists in society, including in the learning process, which will be discussed below.

8.5. Formation of higher feelings

The formation of higher feelings - moral, aesthetic, intellectual - is always social in origin. Higher feelings are associated with cultural traditions, customs, moral and ethical standards and are mediated by various “psychological tools” - sign systems, symbols, words, and various types of art.

The main characteristics of higher feelings are mediation, awareness, and arbitrariness. They are the main object of education, since they reflect the connection between individual and general interests, the connection with the individual, with the social life of a person.

Moral feelings

“Moral feelings characterize the subjective moral position of an individual and, in their social content, represent a person’s subjective attitude to various aspects of social life - to people, to himself, to individual phenomena of social life and to society as a whole.”

The morality of a society or a certain class, a moral idea, ethical concepts are assimilated, transformed into individual personality traits, and form a moral ideal. When performing certain actions, comparisons of these actions and their consequences with a moral and ethical ideal appearing in the form of duty arise in a person’s mind. When observing moral standards, a person experiences brightly colored feelings - pride, gratitude, patriotism; when retreating - “remorse”, guilt, remorse, regret. Moral feelings are regulators of behavior. Conscience is an internal self-control that regulates behavior.

Intellectual feelings are an acute emotional response to the process of cognition and creativity. All higher cognitive acts - seeing objects and phenomena of reality from a new perspective, the birth of an idea and plan, the discovery of patterns, clarity of thought, a feeling of freedom and inspiration in the process of its implementation at the same time - are experiences that, since the time of Wundt, have been called intellectual feelings.

Cognitive feelings are a kind of stimulants for the beginning of the creative process, an accumulator of creative energy during its course, and a regulator of executive activity.

Aesthetic feelings

Aesthetic feeling is the experience of pleasure, joy, delight when perceiving the beauty of nature, man and his creations. It is based on the fundamental need of man to improve the world around him, to choose the most favorable conditions for existence, to experience man’s ability to compete with nature in terms of the possibilities of creating something new and more perfect. Hence everything unfavorable for human existence in nature, in physical

And mental structures of a person, in social terms, cannot evoke aesthetic feelings. The natural environment, physical and mental deformity, which interfere with the normal course of life, are perceived as an anti-aesthetic phenomenon and cause negative experiences.

The aesthetic sense is always based on the compatibility of features and qualities of objects. You can compare aesthetic taste with the taste for food, which evokes a feeling of pleasure or displeasure depending on the compatibility of products and their proportions. A soup made from the same products, but moderately salted or over-salted, will evoke different feelings when consumed.

The same applies to the combination of features that evoke an aesthetic feeling, which is based on the principle of “a little bit”. There is a well-known question that historians and philosophers have asked themselves. “How would history have developed if Cleopatra’s nose had been a little shorter or longer?”

The harmony of lines, color combinations, and the compositional arrangement of objects are also based on compatibility.

The fourth factor is directed education and self-education of feelings.

Much attention has been paid to the education of feelings in the history of mankind. As evidenced by data from a study of the initial formation of man (30 - 40 thousand years ago), the education of moral feelings, the willingness to give one’s life in the interests of the family was already present then. The basic principle of education has always been reward and punishment in real or afterlife (hell - heaven), i.e. emotions are nurtured through emotions.

IN work of E.L. Yakovleva, aimed at revealing, stimulating and encouraging the individual uniqueness of feelings as the basis of creativity, provides methods for their education. The object of such education is the following blocks:

1) “I-I” (I am in communication with myself); 2) “I am different” (I am in communication with others);

3) “I am society” (how I communicate with public institutions); 4) “I am the world” (how I explore this world).

IN trainings developed by her and conducted among schoolchildren I-XI classes according to a specially developed program and at a specially allocated time, the main emphasis is on ways to awaken individual reactions. Anyone who reads her book can gain a lot of useful information both as a teacher and as an artist.

IN the task of every artist is to form professionally significant feelings, without which artistic creativity is impossible.

To cultivate feelings, it is necessary to know WHAT every artist can and should cultivate, what is the “culture of feelings” necessary for the successful implementation of professional activities.

Each phase of the creative process requires the development of certain feelings and attitudes towards the world, towards people, towards oneself.

IN The first phase, preparatory, as mentioned above, is led by contact with the environment. Hence, in the formation of feelings, the leading role becomes the attitude towards the world, at the center of which for the artist is a person who has a past, exists in the present and must step into the future. It is in relation to a person that an artist’s feelings should be formed.

First of all, it is necessary to develop optimism, which is based on faith in the power and capabilities of the human mind. To do this, it is enough to turn to history, to what has been achieved so far by the human mind, when fairy-tale images, for example, the “flying carpet,” before our eyes turn into reality, surpassing fairy-tale dreams, and rockets deliver people to the moon. The human mind is so omnipotent that it interferes with the creativity of nature itself, creates new forms of matter, conquers space and time, arranges and aestheticizes the environment. Without this faith, it is impossible to lead a person into the future, change his attitude towards life, help him see the beauty and joy of life.

And what prevents this. Without faith that people would understand that “this is not possible,” artists would not paint their canvases exposing the truth of life. Moreover, currently “on the agenda” is