Scientific knowledge and technical achievements of medieval Europe, the Arab East and Byzantium. The state of science in the Middle Ages Scientific knowledge, education and technical achievements of Byzantium

Slide 2

Scientific knowledge

• Scientist of Byzantium - Leo Mathematician introduced letter designations in algebra, invented the sound alarm
• Mechanics, medicine, and chemistry developed in Byzantium
• “Greek fire” was invented - oil + resin, cannot be extinguished with water

In the 7th-8th centuries, when Byzantium's possessions declined, Greek became the official language of the empire. The state needed well-trained officials. They had to competently draw up laws, decrees, contracts, wills, conduct correspondence and court cases, respond to petitioners, and copy documents. There is a need for a system of school and higher education, which for the first time in the world arose precisely in Byzantium (the first university also appeared here). Not only in the capital, but also in small towns and large villages, children of ordinary people who were able to pay for education could study in primary schools. Therefore, even among peasants and artisans there were literate people. Often educated people achieved high positions, and with them came power and wealth.

In higher education, along with church schools, public and private schools were opened in cities. They taught reading, writing, arithmetic and church singing. In addition to the Bible and other religious books, the schools studied the works of ancient scientists, the poems of Homer, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles, the works of Byzantine scientists and writers; solved quite complex arithmetic problems. In the 9th century, a higher school was opened in Constantinople, at the imperial palace. It taught religion, mythology, history, geography, and literature.

The Byzantines preserved ancient knowledge of mathematics and used them to calculate tax amounts, in astronomy, and in construction. They also widely used the inventions and writings of great Arab scientists - doctors, philosophers and others. Through the Greeks, Western Europe learned about these works. In Byzantium itself there were many scientists and creative people. Leo the Mathematician (9th century) invented sound signaling for transmitting messages at a distance - automatic devices in the throne room of the imperial palace, driven by water - they were supposed to capture the imagination of foreign ambassadors. Compiled teaching aids in medicine. To teach the art of medicine, in the 11th century, a medical school (the first in Europe) was created at the hospital of one of the monasteries in Constantinople.

The development of crafts and medicine gave impetus to the study of chemistry ; Ancient recipes for making glass, paints, and medicines were preserved. “Greek fire” was invented - an incendiary mixture of oil and tar that cannot be extinguished with water. With the help of “Greek fire,” the Byzantines won many victories in battles at sea and on land.

The Byzantines accumulated a lot of knowledge on geography . They knew how to draw maps and city plans. Merchants and travelers wrote descriptions different countries and peoples.

Historiography developed especially successfully in Byzantium. Bright, interesting essays historians were created on the basis of documents, eyewitness accounts, and personal observations. Because in Byzantium, like in no other country in the medieval world, the traditions of ancient historiography were stable. The works of most Byzantine historians, in terms of the nature of their presentation, language, and composition, are rooted in the classics of Greek historiography - Herodotus, Thucydides, Polybius. From the VI-VII centuries. the works of Procopius of Caesarea, Agathius of Myrinea, Menendre Theophylact, Samocatta are known, Procopius of Caesarea occupies a special place among them. His main works are “The History of Justinian’s Wars with the Persians, Vandals, and Goths”, “On the Buildings of Justinian”. XI-XII centuries - the heyday of Byzantine historiography itself. Author's, emotionally charged works by Mikhail Psellus, Anna Komnina, Nikita Hotiata and others appear, where historians turn from recorders of facts into their interpreters. Historical chronicles acquire the features of a historical novel, which corresponded to the new aesthetic tastes of readers. The boundaries between actual historical writings and historical prose are blurring.

The Eastern Roman Empire was a predominantly Greek state, overwhelmingly Christian, and outlived the Western Empire for a long time.

The name of the empire “Byzantine” (from the name of the city of Byzantium, on the site of which Emperor Constantine I the Great founded Constantinople) was introduced into use by the humanists of the Renaissance after its fall, who did not dare to call it Roman. Despite the rather dubious choice of name, the term “ Byzantine Empire"Widely used in modern historical science. The inhabitants of the eastern Roman Empire themselves called themselves “Romeans” (ρωμαίοι), that is, “Romans”, and the empire - “Romania” or “Romania” (Ρωμανία). Western contemporaries called it the “Empire of the Greeks” because of the decisive role of the Greek population and culture in it . In Rus' it was also usually called the “Greek Kingdom”.

Byzantine science had a powerful impact on many neighboring countries and peoples. Spiritual life in Byzantium had a complex, contradictory character, combining ancient pagan traditions and a Christian worldview, which was reflected in the development of Byzantine science. Despite the fact that Christianity in the Roman Empire was recognized as the state religion, deep respect for the knowledge of ancient philosophy remained, since in the minds of the Byzantines their connection with the Greco-Romantic world played the most important role. At a time when barbaric Western Europe entered the “dark night of the Middle Ages,” the Eastern Roman Empire turned out to be the only center of civilization and culture in all of Europe, providing a higher socio-economic and cultural level in the territories within its sphere of influence.

Science in Byzantium was intricately interconnected with Christian teaching. At the same time, special interest was directed towards ancient philosophy and an attempt to develop it. Byzantine scientific thinking developed in the contradictory environment of the affirmation of the Christian worldview on the basis of the ethical and natural scientific views of antiquity. Thus, science was based on two different pictures of the world: pagan Hellenism, on the one hand, and official Christian doctrine, on the other.

Byzantine culture as a whole is characterized by a desire for systematization, which is characteristic of the Christian worldview in general, and is also due to the influence of Greek ancient philosophy, primarily Aristotle, who set the trend towards classification. In Byzantium, works of a general nature were created, in which there was a classification and systematization of everything that had been achieved at that time in science. The main intellectual efforts of Byzantine scientists consisted in the formal study of newly copied texts, their compilation, and the recording of what had already been achieved, which led to encyclopedicism. A lot of work was done to systematize and comment on ancient authors. Encyclopedias on history, agriculture, and medicine are being compiled, and rich ethnographic material is being collected about the inhabitants of neighboring countries.

Science in Byzantium was understood in accordance with the ancient tradition as speculative knowledge, as opposed to practical, empirical knowledge, which was considered a craft. Following the ancient model, all sciences were united under the name of philosophy - mathematics, natural science, ethics, grammar, rhetoric, logic, astronomy, music and jurisprudence, etc. John of Damascus divided philosophy into theoretical, relating to knowledge, and practical, relating to virtues. In the theoretical section he included physics, mathematics, and theology, and in the practical section - ethics, economics (everyday ethics) and politics. He considered logic a tool of philosophy. John of Damascus gave a systematic presentation of philosophical and logical concepts, as well as cosmological, psychological and other scientific information based on ancient works.

It cannot be said that Byzantine scientists were engaged only in passive processing of the ancient heritage. Not limiting themselves to simply assimilating the knowledge acquired in previous centuries, the Byzantines made certain steps forward in a number of areas. For example, John Philoponus came to the conclusion that the speed of falling bodies does not depend on their gravity; Leo the Mathematician was the first to use letters as algebraic symbols.

With the growth of provincial cities and the rise of handicraft production, greater importance began to be given to the development of knowledge aimed at solving practical problems in the field of medicine, agriculture, and construction.

Shipbuilding, architecture, and the mining industry developed successfully. There is an accumulation of practical knowledge caused by the needs of navigation and trade. Natural sciences are developing, which is accompanied by an expansion of ideas about nature. The rise of scientific knowledge is associated with the emergence of rationalism in the philosophical thought of Byzantium.

Representatives of the rationalist movement in Byzantine theology and philosophy tried to reconcile faith and reason, just like Western European scholastics. In an effort to combine faith with reason, they declared that in order to get closer to understanding God it was necessary to study the world around him, created by him, therefore they introduced natural scientific knowledge into theology. Rationalism was accompanied by a new stage in understanding the ancient heritage. Blind faith based on authority is being replaced by the study of the causality of phenomena in nature and society.

One of the most prominent figures of the rationalist movement is Mikhail Psellos. The works of Psellus are imbued with the desire to master and use the ancient heritage, to provide it with a worthy place in the system of the Christian worldview. Even when describing the world of spiritual essences of Christian teaching, Psellus uses statements about the nature of the soul from Plato, Aristotle, and Plotinus. Psellus studied problems of natural science and cosmology. Moreover, theology almost does not interfere in questions of natural science in Psellus. In his opinion, science should take from mathematics its numerical method and geometric proof, which have the property of logically forcing the recognition of positions as true or false.

The ideas of the rationalists were condemned by the church and were not widely adopted in Byzantium. Unlike Western Europe, rationalism did not become the leading direction of Byzantine theological and philosophical thought.

Despite the general speculative tradition dating back to antiquity, practical science In Byzantium, it was possible to achieve certain results in solving many utilitarian problems, which for a long time ensured the material and technical superiority of the empire. The most famous example in the literature is the so-called “Greek fire” used in military affairs, which was a mixture of oil and sulfur.

Mining was actively developing in the empire as a branch of science and technology, covering a complex of processes of exploration, extraction from the subsoil and primary processing of minerals. Using the experience gained in the ancient period, construction, finishing and semi-precious stones, sulfur, saltpeter, iron, copper, lead ores, silver, gold, mercury, and tin were mined in Byzantium. The degree of development of metallurgy is an important indicator of the technical and economic level of a country, since it represents a very broad area of ​​economics, science and technology, covering the processes of obtaining metals, changing their chemical and physical composition and giving certain forms. Byzantium produced copper, tin, lead, mercury, zinc oxide, silver and gold. Non-ferrous metals and their alloys were used in shipbuilding, agriculture, handicraft production, military affairs. The production of ferrous metals - cast iron, steel, iron - was the leading sector of the Byzantine economy, along with agriculture.

A characteristic feature of Byzantine production and urban craft was comprehensive state regulation. On the one hand, state support

ensured the protection of craft corporations, the presence of state orders, safety on the roads and in the cities of the empire; on the other hand, the workshops lost their independence and fell under the strict control of the central government, which led to a loss of initiative and stagnation in development. The Byzantines' focus on preserving the ancient heritage also had contradictory consequences for the development and implementation of practical knowledge. Initially, it allowed Byzantium to remain the most advanced state in Europe in the production of ceramics, glass, construction, shipbuilding, etc., until the 12th century. But over time, the rigid orientation towards preserving ancient traditions inevitably became a brake on technical development, and gradually the majority of Byzantine crafts began to lag behind Western European ones.

Education was given special importance in the empire.

The reign of Justinian I was marked by the fight against paganism, in particular, in 529 he closed the Platonic Academy in Athens, where pagans studied and taught classical Greek philosophy. It was forbidden for pagans, Jews and heretics to conduct teaching activities.

But, despite the persecution of pagan teachers and their loss of previously existing privileges, educational institutions continued to operate. The University of Constantinople occupied a key place in the cultural life of the state, representing the largest educational and scientific center. Throughout the history of Byzantium, its inhabitants, in comparison with the inhabitants of medieval Western Europe, were generally significantly more educated. Byzantine schools were the most important source of knowledge about antiquity.

Of course, church literature gradually penetrated the educational programs of secular educational institutions. But, despite the teaching of some church disciplines, the schools remained secular, and the education system itself, especially in primary school, was very close to the ancient one.

Not only the Psalter was studied, but also the works of Homer, Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, and the works of Plato and Aristotle. For a better understanding of ancient works, students were given information on ancient history and mythology. In his treatise “For young men, how to profitably read pagan writers,” Basil of Caesarea, although he calls for caution in reading the works of ancient authors and interpreting them in the light of Christian morality, he considers these works to be unconditionally useful.

It is interesting that the notebooks of Byzantine schoolchildren reveal a certain similarity with ancient textbooks. Students copied the same excerpts from ancient myths, the same maxims as the ancient Hellenes. The only differences are that in Byzantine notebooks, in addition to the usual exercises, sometimes verses from the Psalter appear, as well as an appeal to God at the beginning of the first sheet and a cross drawn at the beginning of each page. The school course consisted of studying grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics, law and music. Inclusion in school programs music, or harmony, was explained by the fact that harmony was considered a science, which, along with mathematics and astronomy, helped to understand the eternal laws of the Universe. At the same time, not only the quantitative properties of sounds were studied, but also their physical nature.

In the study of mathematics, “Introduction to Arithmetic” by Nicomachus of Gerasa was used as the main textbook. “Arithmetic” by Diophantus, “Principia” by Euclid, “Metrics” by Heron of Alexandria were used as educational manuals. In the study of astronomy as the science of numbers applied to moving objects, the “Almagest” of Claudius Ptolemy was used. His work “The Four Books” was used as a manual on astrology, which was also included in the teaching program. In the 7th century More popular was Paul of Alexandria’s textbook “Introduction to Astrology.”

Rhetoric played an important role. It was considered a means of personal development and improvement. There were no class restrictions on receiving rhetorical education, but only those who were able to pay for fairly expensive education in rhetoric schools could master it. The standard of style was Gregory the Theologian, who was placed above other speakers.

Primary schools in the empire they functioned not only in cities, but also in rural areas. Higher education could only be obtained in large cities. The main center of education in the state was Constantinople. In 425, by decree of Emperor Theodosius II, a university was created in Constantinople. The number of teachers was determined - 31 people, of which 20 were grammarians, 8 rhetoricians, 2 law teachers and 1 philosopher. They were considered government officials and received salaries from the imperial treasury. Feodosius, with special state acts, ensured the task of state control over students. Each student was required to provide documentary evidence of the origin and condition of his parents, it was required to indicate the sciences in which he intended to study, and his address of residence in Constantinople.

Often, emperors not only assisted in the development of education, but also became interested in science. Leo VI the Wise is known as a scientist who wrote a large number of secular and theological works. Caesar Varda established a school in Magnavry, and the greatest scientist of his time, Lev the Mathematician, was appointed head. The school was located in the palace and taught philosophy, grammar, geometry and astronomy. Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus was distinguished by his versatile knowledge. At his order and with his direct participation, many encyclopedias (about fifty) in various fields of knowledge were compiled. Emperor Constantine IX Monomakh created two schools: philosophy and law. The Emperor personally attended classes, listened and took notes on lectures.

Mikhail Psell was appointed head of the philosophical school. He began his lectures with Aristotle's Logic, then moved on to his Metaphysics, and completed the course with an interpretation of the works of Plato, whom he considered the most significant thinker and even put on the same level as Gregory the Theologian.

The patronizing attitude of the emperors to education and science was explained not only and not so much by their love of knowledge, but by practical considerations, since the successful functioning of the Byzantine state apparatus required the presence of literate and educated people in the administrative structure of government.

Education served not to obtain certain knowledge and information, and, in the future, to generate new knowledge, but, first of all, to occupy a place in the bureaucratic structure corresponding to a certain qualification. Cognitive motivation in Byzantine society was weak; knowledge was not an end in itself; it was subordinated to the principles of the functioning of the bureaucratic machine.

The high qualifications of civil servants for a long time provided the advantage of Byzantium in comparison with Western Europe. Not only secular, but also church administration largely consisted of those who had successfully completed school. School graduates, regardless of the social status of their parents, could become officials in the imperial or church office. Parents spared no money to pay teachers for their children.

(At the same time, the teachers themselves usually also received a salary from the state.) Theoretically, there was free access to the highest positions of the state apparatus, so everyone who had the money to study studied. For its successful functioning, the extensive bureaucratic apparatus needed educated, literate people, and therefore secular education acquired special significance. This explains why Byzantine schools, unlike Western European ones, were not subordinated to the church. Of course, along with secular schools there were also church educational institutions. Since the 9th century, for example, there has been a theological school (patriarchal academy), the curriculum of which was focused on the interpretation of sacred texts. But students also studied rhetoric and other secular sciences.

Science (as well as other areas public life) in Byzantium was subjected to nationalization, and the bureaucracy took over organizational and management functions. Administrative regulations in the field of science and information production become one of the criteria of truth, which must correspond to formal requirements controlled by the bureaucracy. Bureaucratization and state regulation had dual consequences, and, in some cases, contributed to the development of Byzantine science and education, and in other conditions they became an obstacle to their development. Excessive formalization became a characteristic feature of Byzantine science; bureaucratization led to its ossification. A utilitarian attitude towards science dominated: its goal is to educate students and process previously acquired knowledge. The prevailing attitude was that scientific wisdom could be found in the ancient past, of which the Byzantines considered themselves the direct heirs. As a result, the formalized ancient heritage turned into the cause of stereotypical thinking, which did not allow the development of original scientific creativity.

The ancient classics, as well as the Bible, constituted the body of all necessary knowledge. The basis of knowledge was tradition, which, according to the Byzantines, turned to essence, while experience made it possible to become familiar only with the superficial manifestations of the surrounding world. Experimentation and scientific observation were poorly developed. Ideas that could not be confirmed by book authority were perceived as rebellious.

Since the 14th century, pressure on the Byzantine Empire of the Ottoman Turks has constantly increased. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople fell. This dark day marked the end of Byzantium, where for eleven centuries the science of the ancient past was carefully studied and preserved. The political decline of Byzantium led to the active transmission of scientific experience to the West, which became the most important factor preparing the Western European Renaissance.

Throughout the early Middle Ages, the Byzantine Empire was the center of a vibrant and unique spiritual and material culture. Its originality lies in the fact that it combined Hellenistic and Roman traditions with the original culture, dating back to ancient times, not only of the Greeks, but also of many other peoples who inhabited the empire - the Egyptians, Syrians, the peoples of Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, the tribes of the Crimea, as well as Slavs who settled in the empire. The Arabs also had a certain influence on it. During the early Middle Ages, the cities of Byzantium remained centers of education, where science and crafts, fine arts and architecture continued to develop based on the achievements of antiquity. Trade and diplomatic relations of Byzantium stimulated the expansion of geographical and natural science knowledge. Developed commodity-money relations gave rise to a complex system of civil law and contributed to the rise of jurisprudence.

The entire history of Byzantine culture is colored by the struggle of the dominant ideology of the ruling classes with opposition movements expressing the aspirations of the broad masses. In this struggle, on the one hand, ideologists of church-feudal culture are opposed to each other, defending the ideal of subordination of the flesh to the spirit, of man to religion, glorifying the ideas of strong monarchical power and a powerful church; on the other hand, representatives of free-thinking, usually dressed in the garb of heretical teachings, defending to a certain extent the freedom of the human person and opposing the despotism of the state and church. Most often these came from opposition-minded urban circles, small feudal lords, the lower clergy and the masses.

The folk culture of Byzantium occupies a special place. Folk music and dance, church and theatrical performances, preserving the features of ancient mysteries, heroic folk epics, satirical fables, exposing and ridiculing the vices of the lazy and cruel rich, cunning monks, corrupt judges - these are the diverse and vivid manifestations folk culture. The contribution of folk craftsmen to the creation of monuments of architecture, painting, applied art and artistic crafts is invaluable.

Development of scientific knowledge. Education

IN early period In Byzantium, the old centers of ancient learning were still preserved - Athens, Alexandria, Beirut, Gaza. However, the attack of the Christian Church on ancient pagan education led to the decline of some of them. The scientific center in Alexandria was destroyed, the famous Library of Alexandria was destroyed in a fire, and in 415 fanatical monasticism tore to pieces the outstanding woman scientist, mathematician and philosopher Hypatia. Under Justinian, the higher school in Athens was closed - the last center of ancient pagan science.

Subsequently, Constantinople became the center of education, where in the 9th century. The Magnavra Higher School was created, in which secular sciences were taught along with theology. In 1045, a university was founded in Constantinople, which had two faculties - law and philosophy. A higher medical school was also established there. Lower schools, both church-monastery and private, were scattered throughout the country. In large cities and monasteries there were libraries and sceptoria where books were copied.

The dominance of the scholastic theological worldview could not stifle scientific creativity in Byzantium, although it hampered its development. In the field of technology, especially craft technology, thanks to the preservation of many ancient techniques and skills, Byzantium in the early Middle Ages was significantly ahead of the countries of Western Europe. The level of development of natural sciences was also higher. In mathematics, along with commentary on ancient authors, independent scientific creativity also developed, fueled by the needs of practice - construction, irrigation, navigation. In the IX-XI centuries. In Byzantium they begin to use Indian numerals in Arabic writing. By the 9th century. refers to the activities of the major scientist Lev the Mathematician, who invented the light telegraph system and laid the foundations of algebra, using letter designations as symbols.

In the field of cosmography and astronomy there was a sharp struggle between the defenders of ancient systems and supporters of the Christian worldview. In the VI century. Cosmas Indicopleus (i.e., “who sailed to India”) in his “Christian Topography” set out to refute Ptolemy. His naive cosmogony was based on the biblical idea that the Earth has the shape of a flat quadrangle, surrounded by an ocean and covered by a vault of heaven. However, ancient cosmogonic ideas were preserved in Byzantium into the 9th century. Astronomical observations are carried out, although they are still very often intertwined with astrology. Byzantine scientists achieved significant success in the field of medicine. Byzantine physicians not only commented on the works of Galen and Hippocrates, but also generalized their practical experience.

The needs of craft production and medicine stimulated the development of chemistry. Along with alchemy, the beginnings of genuine knowledge also developed. Antique recipes for the production of glass, ceramics, mosaic smalt, enamels and paints were preserved here. In the 7th century In Byzantium, “Greek fire” was invented - an incendiary mixture that gives a flame that cannot be extinguished by water and even ignites upon contact with it. The composition of the “Greek fire” was kept a deep secret for a long time, and only later was it established that it consisted of oil mixed with quicklime and various resins. The invention of “Greek fire” for a long time provided Byzantium with an advantage in naval battles and largely contributed to its hegemony at sea in the fight against the Arabs.

Wide trade and diplomatic connections of the Byzantines contributed to the development of geographical knowledge. In the “Christian Topography” of Kosma Indikoplov, interesting information about the animal and flora, trade routes and the population of Arabia, East Africa, India. Valuable geographical information is contained in the writings of Byzantine travelers and pilgrims of later times. In parallel with the expansion of geographical knowledge, there was an acquaintance with the flora and fauna of various countries, summarized in the works of Byzantine natural scientists. By the 10th century includes the creation of an agricultural encyclopedia - “Geoponics”, which summarized the achievements of ancient agronomy.

At the same time, the desire to adapt the achievements of empirical science to religious ideas is increasingly evident in Byzantine culture.

Throughout its history, Byzantium was a multi-ethnic state. Byzantine culture combined the achievements of many peoples who inhabited it (Greeks, Syrians, Romans, Copts, Armenians, Georgians, Cilicians, Thracians, Cappadocians, Dacians, Slavs, Cumans, Arabs, etc.). However, the Byzantines did not limit themselves to simply assimilating the knowledge acquired in previous centuries, and in a number of areas they took certain steps forward.

Particular attention was paid to those areas of knowledge that were closely related to practice, primarily medicine, agricultural production, construction, and navigation. At the same time, the basis of all sciences was not ancient philosophy, but theology. Establishing itself on the ruins of the ancient world, Christianity in Byzantium supplanted the life-affirming pagan religion of the Greeks.

For a long time, paganism existed alongside Christianity. Many major church figures of Byzantium in the 4th-5th centuries. studied in pagan schools and subsequently actively fought against some of the prejudices of Christians against Greco-Roman ancient literature. Thus, the prominent theologian and bishop of Caesarea of ​​Cappadocia, Basil the Great (c. 330-379), was educated at the highest pagan school in Athens. In his writings, he spoke with great respect about the ancient cultural heritage and convincingly argued that ancient literature in many ways anticipated the advent of Christianity. Moreover, Basil the Great and other early Christian writers pointed out the need for Christians to receive secular education: in their opinion, it would contribute to a better understanding of “Scripture” and its interpretation using the techniques and means of ancient education. Calling themselves Romans and their empire Romean, the Christian Byzantines were proud to preserve the cultural heritage of Hellas and Rome - so powerful was the historical inertia of the ancient world. However, only that which contributed to the strengthening of Christianity was selected from the ancient heritage. In the field of natural science, the main data were drawn from the works of Aristotle (“Physics”, “History of Animals”, “On the Parts of Animals”, “On the Movement of Animals”, “On the Soul”, etc.). All of them were repeatedly commented on by early Byzantine authors in order to make them accessible to the reading public.

The so-called “Six Days”, based on the biblical tale of the creation of the world in six days, became a kind of encyclopedia of natural science in the early Byzantine period. The main goal of the “Conversations on the Six Days” was to present the Christian teaching about the structure of the Universe and to refute the physical theories of antiquity. The most famous were the “Six Days” of Basil the Great and George Pisis. Engaging in the development of philosophical and theological problems and polemicizing with ancient writers, they borrowed from antiquity a variety of information on natural science, both real (about plants, birds, fish, reptiles, land animals, etc.) and fantastic (about sacred geese, virgin birth of offspring from a kite and a silkworm caterpillar - the thesis of the immaculate conception, etc.).

Valuable information about the fauna of Egypt, Ethiopia, Arabia, Ceylon and India is contained in the XI book of “Christian Topography” (c. 549) by Cosmas Indicoplov (i.e., “The Navigator to India”). Along with this, it stated that the Earth is a plane, surrounded by an ocean and covered with a vault of heaven, where paradise is located.

Having become the ideology of the Middle Ages, Christianity had a decisive influence on social and political processes. The state doctrine of glorifying the Christian monarchy and the cult of the Byzantine emperor as the head of the entire Christian world had a huge influence on the entire social and ideological life of Byzantium (ideology, culture, philosophy, history, literature, art and various fields of knowledge, including medicine).