Thinking is a special reality (process, act, activity) that provides us with indirect or direct knowledge about another reality hidden from us, a reality inaccessible to direct observation. V. P. Zinchenko in his work “The Science of Thinking” calls the process

Diagnostic thinking is a chain of logical operations that ensure the process of analytical-synthetic transformation of the conditions of a specific diagnostic problem, as a result of which its solution is born - a conclusion is formulated, which is designated as a diagnosis.

1.5 Thinking and activity Bogbaz10, §5, 46 – 47; 48 – 53; Bogprof10, §8, 85-88 (social essence of activity, thinking and activity, thinking and language); Bogprof10, §17, 168-171 (structure of activity), 174 (types of activity).

Thinking

The means of thinking is language.

Types of thinking .

1) Imaginative thinking. The task is presented clearly, in a specific form. The way to solve it will be practical action. Characteristic of primitive man

2) Conceptual (theoretical) thinking. The task is posed as theoretical. The way to solve it is to use abstract concepts and theoretical knowledge. Characteristic of modern man.

3) Sign thinking. It is caused by the penetration of exact sciences into the human worldview. Knowledge exists in linguistic signs (signs-signals, sign-signs), which have a cognitive image of certain phenomena as their meaning. Science is increasingly using symbolism as a means of expressing the results of mental activity.

.

1) The presence of a need (material or spiritual) to understand, learn, explain something.

2) Formulation of the task (question)

3) Solving a given problem (i.e. the thought process) using methods of analysis and synthesis, through various mental operations

Forms of thinking :

1) conceptual; 2) associative-figurative; 3) verbal-speech; 4) activity-instrumental.

Deyaactivity is a form of human activity aimed at transforming the world around him.

Activity structures:

An object is something towards which an activity is directed.

The subject is the one who implements it.

A goal is an ideal image of the result that the subject seeks to obtain.

Means to achieve it

Result

The main motive that motivates a person to act is his desire to satisfy his needs.

Needs:

Physiological

Social

Ideal

Activities:

Practical activity (transformation of objects of nature and society that exist in reality).

Material and production

Socially transformative

Spiritual (changing people's consciousness)

1. Cognitive

   Value-oriented

Prognostic

Activity can be constructive or destructive.

Communication is a process of information exchange between equal subjects of activity.

Types of communication:

Communication between real subjects (between two people).

Communication between a real subject and an illusory partner (a person with an animal, which he endows with some unusual qualities).

Communication of a real subject with an imaginary partner (this means communication of a person with his inner voice).

Communication between imaginary partners (literary characters).

Forms of communication:

• Monologue or remarks.

Communication is a process of interaction between two or more entities for the purpose of transmitting information.

Details

7.1. Activity.

7.1.1. What is human activity?

7.1.2. Differences between human activities and animal behavior.

7.1.3. Activity structure:

7.1.4. Activities.

7.1.5. Creation.

7.2. Thinking.

7.2.1. What is thinking?

7.2.2. Types of thinking.

7.2.3. Forms of thinking:

7.2.4. Thinking and language.

7.2.5. Stages of mental activity.

7.3. Activity or vanity of vanities ?

7.1 . Activity.

7.1.1. What is human activity?

Activity- a specifically human form of active relationship to the surrounding world, its expedient change and transformation.

7.1.2. Differences between human activities and animal behavior.

Human activity:

1) adaptation to the natural environment through its large-scale transformation, the creation of an artificial environment for human existence;

2) goal setting in activity;

3) conscious setting of goals related to the ability to analyze the situation;

4) impact on the environment with special means of labor, the creation of artificial objects that enhance human physical abilities (the ability to make tools for making tools);

5) the creative nature of the activity;

6) the ability to think abstractly and express the content and results of one’s thinking in articulate speech.

Animal behavior:

1) adaptation to environmental conditions by restructuring one’s own body (mutation);

2) expediency in behavior;

4) impact on nature only by body organs;

5) consumer nature - they do not create anything new, they only use what was originally given by nature.

How does human labor differ from the “labor” of animals??

Activity- This is a specifically human form of interaction with the outside world. In the process of activity, a person learns about the world, creates the conditions necessary for his own existence (food, clothing, housing, etc.), spiritual products (for example, science, literature, music, painting), as well as himself (his will, character, abilities) .An integral feature of activity is its 1) awareness. Its other characteristics include 2) productivity, 3) transformative and 4) public character.

Many actions performed by animals superficially resemble the labor actions of people. For example, beavers, like people, build dams on rivers; birds build nests. Animals teach their young to hunt and get food. Many people are stocking up for the winter. And bees and ants are sometimes even called “social animals”, since they act together and their joint actions are distinguished by a clear organization and distribution of “roles”.

3) People are driven by conscious motives and consciously put forward goals of activity, and the behavior of animals is purely instinctive. Animal behavior is not associated with independent goal setting and meaningful acceptance. The problems that animals “solve” confront them objectively, and the method of solving them is inherited by one generation of animals after another. Not a single animal is able to invent its own, original, different way of solving a particular problem. An animal cannot go beyond the biological program of its actions. In work activity, a person consciously puts forward a goal, chooses rational ways to achieve it, and resorts to creative solutions. 4) The ability to work together is mistakenly considered by many to be an ability characteristic of both humans and animals. But if we remember that animals act and do not work, that they are driven by instincts, unconditioned reflexes, and not by consciously set goals and volitional efforts, we can unequivocally state that work is a type of activity characteristic only of humans.

7.1.2. Activity structure:

2) funds;

3) products (results);

4) motives;

5) actions.

7.1.3. Activities.

Classification No. 1 (by content):

2) teaching (study, knowledge);

4) communication.

Work– an activity that is aimed at achieving a practically useful result.

Features of work activity: expediency; focus on achieving expected results; availability of knowledge, skills, abilities; practical usefulness; obtaining a result; transformation of the external habitat.

Teaching– activities aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities by a person.

Learning can be organized (in educational institutions) and unorganized (a by-product, additional result of other types of activities).

A game- an activity that is focused not so much on a specific result, but on the process of the game itself.

Features of gaming activities: occurs in a conditional situation; so-called substitute items are used; aims to satisfy the interests of its participants; promotes personality development.

Communication– 1) establishment and development of mutual relations, contacts between people; 2) a type of activity in which ideas and emotions are exchanged.

How do activities and communication relate?? (points of view):

1) Communication is an element of any activity, and activity is a necessary condition for communication; an equal sign can be put between them.

2) Communication is one of the types of human activity along with play, work, etc.

3) Communication and activity are different categories, two sides of a person’s social existence: work activity can occur without communication, and communication can exist without activity.

Communication and communication.

Communication – communication, exchange of information between people.

Differences:

1) Recipient of information: communication – person; communication – person, animal, machine.

2) nature of exchange: communication: mutual exchange with the active participation of each subject; communication: unidirectional flow of information with formal feedback.

3) Consequences: communication: the community of participants is enhanced; communication: participants remain isolated.

Types of communication.

By means of communication used:

1) direct – with the help of natural organs;

2) indirect – using special means (newspaper or CD);

3) direct – personal contacts and direct perception of each other;

4) indirect - through intermediaries who can be other people.

By subjects of communication:

1) between real subjects;

2) between a real subject and an illusory partner, to whom the qualities of a subject of communication are attributed;

3) between a real subject and an imaginary partner (“inner voice”);

4) between imaginary partners (artistic image).

Communication functions:

1) socialization;

2) educational;

3) psychological;

4) identification (an expression of a person’s involvement in a group: “I am one of my own” or “I am a stranger”);

5) organizational.

Classification No. 2 (by objects and results of activities):

1) practical: material and production (transformation of nature), social and transformational (transformation of nature);

2) spiritual (cognitive, value-oriented, prognostic).

Classification No. 3 (according to the nature of the consequences):

1) creative;

2) destructive.

7.1.4. Creation.

Creation- an activity that generates something 1) qualitatively 2) new, never before existing or active, 3) the development of an already existing wealth of culture that meets the needs of the time.

Creativity is a synthetic type of human activity that combines at a new, higher level some elements of both pre-work instinctive activity of people (internal motivation for activity) and labor (awareness of the goals of activity).

Mechanisms of creative activity:

1) combining, varying existing knowledge, known methods of action;

2) imagination;

3) fantasy;

4) intuition.

7.2 . Thinking.

7.2.1. What is thinking?

Thinking– an active process of reflecting the objective world in concepts, judgments, theories, etc.

The biological basis of thinking is the human brain.

The means of thinking is language.

The basis of thinking is sensory experience, which is transformed in thinking through its generalization, identifying the necessary features and properties of objects.

7.2.2. Types of thinking.

Thinking is a complex socio-historical phenomenon. Its development is characterized by increased abstraction and generalization.

The peculiarities of thinking of primitive man differ from modern man in their sensual concreteness and objectivity versus great generalizing abilities. At different stages of human development and his mental abilities, different types of thinking dominated:

1) Imaginative thinking. The task is presented clearly, in a specific form. The way to solve it will be practical action. Characteristic of primitive man and people of the first earthly civilizations.

2) Conceptual (theoretical) thinking. The task is posed as theoretical. The way to solve it will be to use abstract concepts and theoretical knowledge. Characteristic of modern man.

3) Sign thinking. It is caused by the penetration of exact sciences and their formalized knowledge, artificial, sign languages ​​into the human worldview. Knowledge exists in linguistic signs (signs-signals, sign-signs), which as their meaning have a cognitive image of certain phenomena, processes of objective reality. Science is increasingly using symbolism as a means of expressing the results of mental activity.

In their pure form, certain types of thinking are difficult to notice. It is advisable to talk about the predominance of one type or another. In the process of thinking, a person gradually discovered an increasing number of laws in the world around him, i.e. essential, repeating, stable connections between things. Having formulated the laws, man began to use them in further knowledge, which gave him the opportunity to actively influence nature and social life.

7.2.2. Forms of thinking:

2) associative-figurative;

3) verbal-speech;

4) activity-instrumental.

7.2.3. Thinking and language.

Thinking is inextricably linked with language. A person's thoughts are expressed in language. With its help, a person understands the objective world. This happens because language somehow corresponds to the objects of reality, their properties and relationships. In other words, there are elements in the language that replace named objects. They play the role of representatives of objects of knowledge in thinking; they are signs of objects, properties or relationships.

7.2.4. Stages of mental activity.

Despite the fact that thinking is a process that occurs in the cerebral cortex, it is social in nature. To formulate and solve any problem, a person uses laws, rules, concepts that were discovered in human practice. The thinking process goes through a number of stages:

1) The presence of a need (material or spiritual) or the need to understand, learn, explain something. The presence of interest in the new, unknown that a person has noticed in the surrounding reality. The ability to identify the new and unusual from the known. The desire to learn, understand, reveal this new, unfamiliar.

2) Formulating a task (question) – defining the subject of thinking and the direction of the thought process.

3) Solving the given problem (i.e. the thought process) using methods of analysis and synthesis, through various mental operations: comparison, classification, systematization, generalization, abstraction, concretization.

4) Achieving new knowledge that a person did not possess before.

7.3 . Activity or vanity of vanities?

In terms of his activity, man is excessive; he produces a lot of things that are completely unnecessary to him. Perhaps this redundancy is one of the reasons for the environmental absurdity in which we find ourselves today. It is known that only 2% of developed natural resources are directly related to meeting vital human needs. Everything else is ultimately a dump of trinkets, decorations and crazy technologies aimed at satisfying human vanity.

Lecture: Activity and thinking

“The animal believes that its only business is to live,

and a person takes life only as an opportunity to do something.”

A. I. Herzen

Activity is a way of existence of people

Students are asked to complete the “confusion” task: from the given letters, reconstruct the word that will be decisive in our lesson today.

telyanedtso (activity), shelimen (thinking)

Exercise 1. Each pair shows performing some kind of work (digging, shooting, drawing, throwing stones, talking, whittling a block, driving nails, etc.).

– What did you do?

– Why did you do this?

– Can we live and do nothing?

– Are we aware of what we are doing?

– Are human activities different from the “activities” of animals?

– Is activity inherent in animals?

All living things interact with their environment. Outwardly this manifests itself in physical activity. By adapting to the environment, animals can use natural objects as tools. But only human activity is inherent.

While a person lives, he constantly acts, does something, is busy with something. In the process of activity, a person learns about the world, creates the conditions necessary for his own existence (food, clothing, housing, etc.), satisfies his spiritual needs (for example, by doing science, literature, music, painting), and also engages in self-improvement (strengthening the will, character , developing your abilities).

Activity is a form of activity aimed at transforming the world around us.

Activity - purposeful cognition and change by a person of the external world and himself.

Thinking - a cognitive process characterized by a generalized and indirect reflection of reality.

Human activity: main characteristics

Task 2. Independently or using the text of § 5, characterize each feature of the activity.

Let us briefly recall the differences between human activity and animal behavior. Firstly, human activity isconscientious character . A person consciously puts forward the goals of his activity and anticipates its result. Secondly, activity isproductive nature . It is aimed at obtaining a result, a product. These, in particular, are tools made and constantly improved by man. In this regard, they talk about the instrumental nature of activity, since to carry it out a person creates and uses tools. Thirdly, activity istransformative nature : in the course of activity, a person changes the world around him and himself - his abilities, habits, personal qualities. Fourthly, it is manifested in human activitypublic character , since in the process of activity a person, as a rule, enters into various relationships with other people.

Structure of activity and its motivation

Working with the diagram.

What are the constituent elements of an activity? The structure of an activity distinguishes between its subject - the one who carries out the activity and the object - what the activity is aimed at..

Who do you think could be the subject of the activity? (person, group of people, organization, government body).

Name possible objects of activity (natural materials, spheres or areas of people’s lives, people themselves).

Task 3. After reading the text, answer the questions orally.

In the fairy tale M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Wild Landowner” the author depicts a landowner, through whose prayer God cleared all his possessions of peasants. This landowner enjoyed the air, freed from the smell of chaff and sheepskin, and dreamed of “what kind of fruit garden he would plant: “Here there will be pears and plums; here are peaches, here are walnuts!” I thought, “what kind of cows will he raise, that there will be no skin, no meat, but all milk, all milk!.. what kind of strawberries he will plant, all double and triple, five berries per pound, and how many of these strawberries he will sell in Moscow” . How much or how much time has passed, only the landowner sees that in his garden the paths are overgrown with thistles, in the bushes snakes and all sorts of reptiles are teeming, and in the park wild animals are howling,” “taxes and regalia have stopped, and it has become impossible to get there is not a pound of flour or a piece of meat in the market.”

Questions:

What were the landowner's goals?

What means did he choose to achieve them?

Did the landowner's actions lead to the results he sought? Why?

Conversation on issues, accompanied by drawing up a diagram.

Summary of the conversation: Structure activities

actions

Every human activity is determined by the goals that he sets for himself. We have already talked about this, touching on such a feature of human activity as its conscious nature.Target - this is a conscious image of the anticipated result towards which the activity is aimed. For example, an architect first mentally imagines an image of a new building, and then embodies his plan in drawings. The mental image of a new building is an anticipated result.

Certain things help you achieve the desired resultmeans of activity . So, in the learning activity you are familiar with, the means are textbooks and teaching aids, maps, tables, layouts, instruments, etc. They help in the acquisition of knowledge and the development of the necessary educational skills.

In the course of activity, certainproducts (results) activities. These are material and spiritual benefits, forms of communication between people, social conditions and relationships, as well as the abilities, skills, and knowledge of the person himself. The results of activities embody a consciously set goal.

Motives of activity.

What do you think motivates a person to act? (motives.)

Read the parable:

“A diligent woodcutter honestly collected brushwood, he was paid well and praised for his hard work. Only one thing was hidden from him: the brushwood went to the fires of the Inquisition, where people were burned.”

What is the parable about?

A person must always comprehend his actions, foresee their consequences, know what will happen as a result - good or evil.

Why does a person put forward this or that goal? He is encouraged to do thismotives . “A goal is what a person acts for; a motive is why a person acts,” explained Russian psychologist V. A. Krutetsky (1917-1991).

The same activity can be caused by different motives. For example, students read, that is, they perform the same activity. But one student can read, feeling the need for knowledge. The other is out of a desire to please parents. The third is driven by the desire to get a good grade. The fourth wants to assert himself. At the same time, the same motive can lead to different types of activity. For example, trying to assert himself in his team, a student can prove himself in educational, sports, and social activities.

Is it possible to say that the result always coincides with the goal? Why? (We wanted the best, but it turned out as always.)

What do you think drives human activity? (Motive is an incentive, a reason for some action).

What motives do you know?

needs

interest

ideals

beliefs

social attitudes

The motive is related to the satisfaction of needs. What groups of human needs do you know?

Human activity is carried out to satisfy his needs.

Need - this is the need experienced and realized by a person for what is necessary to maintain his body and develop his personality.

In modern science, various classifications of needs are used. In the most general form, they can be combined into three groups.

Natural needs. In another way they can be called innate, biological, physiological, organic, natural. These are human needs for everything that is necessary for his existence, development and reproduction. Natural ones include, for example, human needs for food, air, water, housing, clothing, sleep, rest, etc.

Social needs. They are determined by a person’s membership in society. Social needs are considered to be human needs for work, creation, creativity, social activity, communication with other people, recognition, achievements, i.e. in everything that is a product of social life.

Ideal needs. They are otherwise called spiritual or cultural. These are a person’s needs for everything that is necessary for his spiritual development. The ideal includes, for example, the need for self-expression, the creation and development of cultural values, the need for a person to understand the world around him and his place in it, the meaning of his existence.

Natural, social and ideal human needs are interconnected. Thus, the satisfaction of biological needs acquires many social facets in a person. For example, when satisfying hunger, a person cares about the aesthetics of the table, the variety of dishes, the cleanliness and beauty of the dishes, pleasant company, etc.

Describing needs, A. Maslow characterized a person as a “desiring being” who rarely achieves a state of complete, complete satisfaction. If one need is satisfied, another one rises to the surface and directs the person's attention and efforts.

The same feature of human needs was emphasized by the domestic psychologist S. L. Rubinstein (1889-1960), speaking about the “unsatiability” of the needs that a person satisfies in the course of his activities.

The theory of activity in Russian science was developed by the Soviet psychologist A. N. Leontyev (1903-1979). He describedstructure of human activity , highlighting the goal, means and result.

Usually, human activity is determined not by any one motive and goal, but by a whole system of motives and goals. There is a combination, or, one might say, composition, of both goals and motives. And this composition cannot be reduced to any one of them, nor to their simple sum.

The motives of a person’s activities reveal his needs, interests, beliefs, and ideals. It is motives that give meaning to human activity.

Any activity appears before us as a chain of actions. A component, or, in other words, a separate act of activity is calledaction . For example, educational activities consist of such actions as reading educational literature, listening to teachers' explanations, taking notes, conducting laboratory work, doing exercises, solving problems, etc.

If a goal is set, the results are mentally presented, the order of actions is outlined, the means and methods of action are selected, then it can be argued that the activity is carried out quite consciously. However, in real life, the process of activity takes it beyond the banks of any goals, intentions, or motives. The emerging result of activity turns out to be poorer or richer than the initial plan.

Under the influence of strong feelings and other stimuli, a person is capable of acting without a sufficiently conscious goal. Such actions are called low-conscious orimpulsive actions.

People's activities always proceed on the basis of previously created objective prerequisites and certain social relations. For example, agricultural activities in the times of Ancient Rus' were fundamentally different from modern agricultural activities. Remember who owned the land in those days, who cultivated it and with what tools, what the harvests depended on, who owned agricultural products, how they were redistributed in society.

The conditioning of activity by objective social prerequisites indicates itsspecific historical character .

Variety of activities

Task 4. Work in pairs. Read the text and write down the classifications of activities.

Depending on the diversity of needs of a person and society, the diversity of specific types of human activities also develops.

Based on various reasons, different types of activities are distinguished. Depending on the characteristics of a person’s relationship to the world around him, activities are divided into practical and spiritual.Practical activities is aimed at transforming real objects of nature and society.Spiritual activity associated with a change in people's consciousness.

When human activity is correlated with the course of history, with social progress, thenprogressive or reactionary direction of activity, as well ascreative or destructive . Based on the material studied in the history course, you can give examples of events in which these types of activities were manifested.

Depending on the compliance of the activity with existing general cultural values ​​and social norms, they determinelegal and illegal, moral and immoral activities .

In connection with social forms of bringing people together for the purpose of carrying out activities, they distinguishcollective, mass, individual activities .

Depending on the presence or absence of novelty of goals, results of activities, methods of its implementation, they distinguishmonotonous, patterned, monotonous activity , which is carried out strictly according to the rules and instructions, the new in such activities is reduced to a minimum, and most often completely absent, and the activityinnovative, inventive, creative . The word “creativity” is usually used to denote an activity that generates something qualitatively new, previously unknown. Creative activity is distinguished by originality, uniqueness, and originality. It is important to emphasize that elements of creativity can find a place in any activity. And the less it is regulated by rules and instructions, the more opportunities it has for creativity.

Depending on the public spheres in which the activity takes place, there areeconomic, political, social activities etc. In addition, in each sphere of social life, certain types of human activity characteristic of it are distinguished. For example, the economic sphere is characterized by production and consumption activities. Political activities are characterized by state, military, and international activities. For the spiritual sphere of society's life - scientific, educational, leisure.

Considering the process of formation of the human personality, domestic psychology identifies the following main types of human activity. Firstly, this is a game: subject-based, role-playing, intellectual, sports. Game activity is focused not so much on a specific result, but on the process of the game itself - its rules, situation, imaginary environment. It prepares a person for creative activity and life in society.

Secondly, this doctrine - activities aimed at acquiring knowledge and methods of action.

Thirdly, this work - a type of activity aimed at achieving a practically useful result.

Often, along with play, study and work, people are identified as the main activitycommunication - establishment and development of mutual relations, contacts between people. Communication includes the exchange of information, assessments, feelings and specific actions.

When studying the features of the manifestation of human activity, they distinguish between external and internal activities.External activities manifests itself in the form of movements, muscle efforts, actions with real objects.Internal occurs through mental actions. During this activity, human activity is manifested not in real movements, but in ideal models created in the process of thinking. There is a close connection and complex dependence between these two activities. Internal activities, figuratively speaking, plan external ones. It arises on the basis of the external and is realized through it. This is important to take into account when considering the connection between activity and consciousness.

Classification of activities

I. Depending on the characteristics of a person’s relationship to the world around him:

a) practical (aimed at transforming real objects of nature and society);

b) spiritual (related to changes in people’s consciousness).

II. Depending on the course of history, social progress:

a) progressive activity;

b) reactionary activity;

c) creative activity;

d) destructive activity.

III. Depending on the compliance of the activity with existing general cultural values ​​and social norms:

a) legal,

b) illegal,

c) moral,

d) immoral.

IV. Depending on the social forms of association of people:

a) collective,

b) massive,

c) individual.

V. Depending on the presence or absence of novelty of goals, results of activities, methods of its implementation:

a) monotonous, patterned, monotonous activity;

b) innovative;

c) inventive, creative.

VI. Depending on public spheres:

a) economic;

b) political;

c) social;

d) spiritual (cultural).

VII. In accordance with the process of personality formation:

a) gaming activity;

b) teaching;

c) labor.

VIII. Depending on the characteristics of the manifestation:

a) internal activity (occurs through mental actions);

b) external activity (manifests in the form of movements, muscle efforts, actions with real objects).

The most important type of practical activity is the material and production activity of people, aimed at transforming the natural world and creating material wealth.

Thinking - an active process of reflecting the objective world in concepts, judgments, theories, etc.

Sensory experience, which is transformed in thinking through its generalization, identifying the necessary features and properties of objects.

Despite the fact that thinking is a process that takes place in the human cerebral cortex, it is social in nature. After all, to formulate and solve any problem, a person uses laws, rules, concepts that were discovered in human practice.

Thinking is inextricably linked with language. A person's thoughts are expressed in language. With its help, a person understands the objective world. This happens because language somehow corresponds to the objects of reality, their properties and relationships. In other words, there are elements in the language that replace named objects. They play the role of representatives of objects of knowledge in thinking; they are signs of objects, properties or relationships.

The indirect nature of thinking lies in the fact that a cognizing person, with the help of thinking, penetrates into the hidden properties, connections, and relationships of objects.

Question for students: Do you think thinking is given to a person from birth or is formed during life? (students' answers are listened to).

An example of the Mowgli children is given.

There are cases where human children grew up among animals. Their behavior was no different from that of an animal, and in the future it was almost impossible to teach them to speak, let alone reason and analyze. That is, newborns have the rudiments of thinking, the prerequisites for its emergence, but they must be developed for a person to become a person. Moreover, thinking abilities develop only up to a certain age; in the future, you have to use the already formed skills of comparing, analyzing, and reasoning. It is very important to develop a child during the first year of life.

Thus, thinking skills are formed in a person only during life in human society, they are not given from birth.

As an example of exercises for training thinking, it is proposed to solve a puzzle with matches (“Cow in the meadow”):

This cow has a head, body, horns, legs and a tail. She looks to the left. Move the 2 matches so that the cow is facing to the right.

Features of thinking:
primitive man - sensual concreteness and objectivity;
modern man has great generalizing abilities.

At different stages of human development and his mental abilities, different types of thinking dominated.

Types of thinking: creating a cluster

1) Figurative - the task is given clearly, in a specific form. The way to solve it will be practical action. Characteristic of primitive man and people of the first earthly civilizations.

2) Conceptual (theoretical) - the task is posed as theoretical. The way to solve it will be to use abstract concepts and theoretical knowledge. Characteristic of modern man.

3) Sign - due to the penetration into the human worldview of exact sciences and their formalized knowledge, artificial, sign languages. Knowledge exists in linguistic signs (signs-signals, sign-signs, etc.), which as their meaning have a cognitive image of certain phenomena, processes of objective reality. Science is increasingly and more effectively using symbolism as a means of expressing the results of mental activity.

In their pure form, certain types of thinking are difficult to notice. It is advisable to talk about the predominance of one type or another.

In the process of thinking, a person gradually discovered an increasing number of laws in the world around him, i.e. essential, repeating, stable connections between things. Having formulated the laws, man began to use them in further knowledge, which gave him the opportunity to actively influence nature and social life.

Consciousness and activity

For centuries, the problem of consciousness has been the subject of heated ideological debate. Representatives of different philosophical schools answer the question about the nature of consciousness and the features of its formation in different ways. The natural-scientific approach is opposed to religious-idealistic views in these disputes. Supportersnatural scientific approach They consider consciousness to be a manifestation of the functions of the brain, secondary in comparison with the bodily organization of a person. Supportersreligious idealistic views On the contrary, consciousness is considered primary, and the “bodily” person is its derivative.

But, despite the differences in the interpretation of the nature of consciousness, both note that it is associated with speech and goal-setting activity of a person. What consciousness is like, what it represents, is evidenced by the language of people and cultural objects - the results of labor, works of art, etc.

Based on a natural scientific approach, domestic psychology has developed a doctrine of the formation of stable structures of human consciousness at an early age through communication with adults. According to this teaching, each person, in the course of individual development, is introduced to consciousness, i.e., shared knowledge, through mastery of language. And thanks to this, his individual consciousness is formed. Thus, from birth, a person enters the world of objects created by previous generations. As a result of communication with other people, he learns the purposeful use of these objects.

It is precisely because a person relates to the objects of the external world with understanding, with knowledge, that the way he relates to the world is called consciousness. Any sensory image of an object, any sensation or idea, having a certain meaning and meaning, becomes part of consciousness. On the other hand, a number of sensations and experiences of a person are beyond the scope of consciousness. They lead to little-conscious, impulsive actions, which were mentioned earlier, and this affects human activity, sometimes distorting its results.

Activity, in turn, contributes to changes in human consciousness and its development.Consciousness is formed by activity in order to at the same time influence, define and regulate this activity. By practically implementing their creative ideas born in their consciousness, people transform nature, society and themselves. In this sense, human consciousness not only reflects the objective world, but also creates it. Having absorbed historical experience, knowledge and methods of thinking, having acquired certain skills and abilities, a person masters reality. At the same time, he sets goals, creates projects for future tools, and consciously regulates his activities.

Justifying the unity of activity and consciousness, domestic science has developed a doctrine of activity, which is leading for each age period of a person’s life. The word “leading” emphasizes, firstly, that it is she who forms the most important personality traits at this age stage. Secondly, all other types of activity develop in line with the leading activity.

For example, before entering school, a child’s leading activity is play, although he already studies and works a little (at home with his parents or in kindergarten). The leading activity of a schoolchild is learning. But, despite the fact that work occupies an important place in his life, in his free time he still continues to play with pleasure. Many researchers consider communication to be the leading activity of a teenager. At the same time, the teenager continues to study and new favorite games appear in his life. For an adult, the leading activity is work, but in the evenings he can study, and devote his free time to sports or intellectual games, and communication.

Dictionary

Activity - a specific type of human activity aimed at improving the world around us and oneself.

Consciousness - the highest, human-specific form of generalized and purposeful reflection of reality; a set of mental processes involved in a person’s understanding of the objective world.

Practical conclusions

1. Learn to set specific goals for yourself and determine the optimal means to achieve them. This gives the activity a conscious character, allows you to control its progress and make, if necessary, certain adjustments.

2. Remember: it is important to see not only the immediate, but also the distant goals of your activities. This will help you overcome difficulties and will not allow you to stop halfway without achieving your goal.

3. Show concern for the diversity of your activities. This will provide the opportunity to satisfy different needs and develop different interests.

4. Do not forget about the importance of internal activities in people's lives. This will help you be attentive to the opinions, emotions, and feelings of others, and show sensitivity in your relationships with other people.

Document

From the work of modern Russian psychologist V. A. Petrovsky “Personality in psychology: the paradigm of subjectivity.”

For example, we are convinced that any activity has an author (“subject”), that it is always aimed at one thing or another (“object”), that first there is consciousness, then there is activity. In addition, we have no doubt that activity is a process and that it can be observed from the outside or, in any case, “from the inside” - through the eyes of the person himself. Everything is so as long as we do not take into account a person’s progress towards an already accepted goal... But if we make the movement of activity the subject of attention, then suddenly it turns out that everything that has been said about its structure loses its clarity... The author loses its “sharpness” ; the orientation of activity towards an object gives way to orientation towards another person... the process of activity breaks up into many branching and again merging “streams-transitions”... instead of consciousness preceding and directing activity, it itself turns out to be something secondary, derived from activity ...And all this is due to the tendencies of one’s own movement, self-development of activity...

There is always an element of discrepancy between what you strive for and what you achieve... Regardless of whether the plan turns out to be higher than the embodiment or, conversely, the embodiment exceeds the plan, the discrepancy between the aspiration and the effects of the actions carried out stimulates a person’s activity, the movement of his activity. And as a result, new activity is born, and not only one’s own, but perhaps that of other people.

Questions and tasks for the document

1. Based on the source text, explain what an object and subject of activity are. Give specific examples of objects and subjects of various types of activities.

2. Find lines in the source text where the author talks about the movement of activity. What meaning does he put into these words? What appears as a result of the movement of activity?

Self-test questions

1. What is an activity? 2. What features are inherent in human activity? 3. How are activities and needs related? 4. What is the motive of activity? How is a motive different from a goal? What is the role of motives in human activity? 5. Define the need. Name the main groups of human needs and give specific examples. 6. What can be attributed to the results (products) of human activity? 7. Name the types of human activities. Explain their diversity using specific examples. 8. How are activity and consciousness related?

Tasks

1. In Kamchatka, famous for its active volcanoes, special technologies for processing volcanic raw materials are being introduced. This work began with a special decision of the governor. Experts have determined that the production of silicates from volcanic rock is a very profitable business that does not require significant investment. According to their calculations, the work of one plant can bring 40 million rubles to the regional budget and 50 million rubles to the state budget. Consider this information from the perspective of the topic studied: determine what types of human activity were manifested in the events described, name the subjects and objects of activity in each case, and trace the connection between consciousness and activity in this example.

2. Determine whether practical or spiritual activity includes: a) cognitive activity; b) social reforms; c) production of essential goods.

3. Name the actions that make up the activities of a doctor, farmer, scientist.

4. A. N. Leontyev wrote: “Activity is richer, truer than the consciousness that precedes it.” Explain this idea.

Thoughts of the wise

“Activity is the only path to knowledge.”

B. Shaw (1856-1950), English writer