Lunar station. Space frontiers: why Russia needs a lunar station
Russia chooses the Moon as its target for the next thirty to forty years. What will the domestic lunar program be like? Numerous draft documents and proposals from leading space companies and industry institutes helped to assemble the “puzzle” of disparate proposals into a single picture.
The development of a national strategy for the development of our natural satellite was the topic of the round table “Study of the nearest planets solar system on the example of exploration of the lunar surface,” which took place in mid-October 2014 in the TASS conference hall. Representatives of the Federal Space Agency, RSC Energia, IKI RAS, NPO named after S.A. spoke about their projects and plans. Lavochkin, TsNIIMash and the Keldysh Center. Additional information about the Russian lunar program was presented at the Fifth International Moscow Symposium on Solar System Research, held at the Space Research Institute (SRI) October 13–17.
Science and life // Illustrations
Science and life // Illustrations
Simulation of the Luna Seven lunar base on the panoramic virtual reality system of the Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosova. Drawing “Lin Industrial” and Mekhmat MSU.
Stages and conditions for the implementation of the lunar program. Federal Space Agency.
The first stage of the Russian lunar program. Federal Space Agency.
Elements of a promising manned lunar infrastructure. Federal Space Agency.
A spacecraft for delivering crew to lunar orbit with an upper stage. Federal Space Agency.
Lunar infrastructure of the third stage of RSC Energia
Science and life // Illustrations
At the beginning of next year, the Federal Space Program (FSP) for 2016–2025 should be approved. Projects and research included in it will receive funding in the next decade. Of course, changes can be made during the course of work, but usually they are related to the timing of implementation, and not to an increase in allocated funds. Plans beyond the 2016–2025 FCP are discussed in two additional documents: the Concept of the National Lunar Exploration Program and the Long-Term Deep Space Exploration Program. These documents have not yet been adopted and are in the process of being finalized.
First the machines...
At the first stage (this is what is specified in the FCP 2016–2025), our natural satellite is going to be studied only with the help of automatic stations. Unlike the expeditions of the 1970s, new domestic lunar stations must land in the polar region of the Moon.
There have been no national expeditions to Selena in Russia for a very long time - almost forty years. The last Soviet lunar probe, Luna-24, completed the task of delivering soil in August 1976. The participation of Russian scientists in foreign lunar programs has so far been limited only to the installation of the LEND (Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector) neutron detector on the American Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) probe. The domestic device detected dips in neutron radiation initiated by cosmic rays in the upper layer of the lunar surface. Such dips indicate the presence of hydrogen in the lunar soil. Of course, these could be its various compounds, but other indirect data, in particular observations of absorption lines made by American scientists using the Indian Chandrayaan-1 probe, confirm that this is most likely water ice.
To obtain evidence of the presence of water ice in the lunar soil, NASA scientists conducted an interesting experiment: the fall of the Centaur upper stage (UR) into the Cabeus crater area, where data from neutron detectors showed the presence of hydrogen. After the collision of the Belarusian Republic with the Moon, a cloud of dust rose. The LCROSS mini-probe flying behind Centaur ( Lunar CRater Observation and Sensing Satellite- The Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Spacecraft flew through and recorded the presence of about 150 kg of water in the form of steam and ice in the uplifted cloud. This made it possible to estimate the mass fraction of ice in the regolith at approximately 2.7–8.5%.
Measurements of neutron radiation from the Moon before LRO were also carried out by the Clementine and Lunar Prospector spacecraft, but their instruments did not provide high spatial resolution. They only indicated that the neutron radiation dips were roughly associated with polar craters. LRO data showed that neutron radiation dips were detected both inside craters and in their surroundings. This may mean that there are reserves of water ice not only in “cold traps” - craters where the Sun never looks - but also nearby. How they got there is not entirely clear. Astrophysicists suggest that there is a mechanism for the migration of water molecules due to their knocking out by ions of the solar wind.
The fact remains: there is water ice on the surface - where there is sunlight! This is fundamentally important for planning future lunar missions, since it is very difficult to create a probe that will operate in permanent shadow. It would have to be equipped with powerful isotope energy sources and somehow ensure communication with the Earth after landing in the “pit”. Previously, when scientists hoped to find ice only in “cold traps,” the practical benefits of such a discovery were not obvious. It is difficult to build a lunar settlement in a shadowed crater and it is not easy to organize an automatic expedition there. When ice was discovered around the craters, the idea immediately arose that research could be carried out in the foreseeable future by a direct method - by landing spacecraft.
So, according to the new Federal Space Program, in 2019 the Luna-25 probe (or Luna-Glob) should land on the Moon in the Boguslavsky crater, which is located in the southern polar region of the Moon. The device will be launched by the Soyuz-2.1A rocket, the dry mass of the spacecraft will be 533 kg, the total mass will be 1450 kg. Payload mass (including manipulator for taking soil samples) – 30 kg.
Luna 25 is a prototype probe for training. According to the general director of the NPO named after S.A. Lavochkin, Viktor Vladimirovich Hartov, “we need to learn how to land on the Moon again.” As part of the project, systems for landing and ensuring work on the surface will be developed. Despite the test nature, the mission is unique: unlike Soviet probes, the Russian automatic station will land not in the equatorial, but in the polar region of the Moon, which is very interesting for scientists.
It is very likely that Russia will lose primacy in the new “lunar race” to the lunar poles. In 2016–2017 (two to three years before Luna-25), the Indian mission Chandrayaan-2 will launch, which will include an orbiter weighing approximately 1400 kg and a descent module (1250 kg), including a small rover (300 –100 kg). The vicinity of the lunar south pole was chosen as the landing site for the Chandrayaan-2 lander.
At the end of 2015 or early 2016, Chinese specialists will try to deliver the second Chinese lunar rover (mission 嫦娥四号 - Chang'e-4), and automatic delivery of lunar soil is planned for 2017–2018. Judging by the information available today, the Chinese spacecraft will land far from the polar regions. However, the plans of the Celestial Empire may well change.
The issue of financing a European landing project in the polar region of the Moon - Lunar Lander - was considered in 2012, but no money was allocated. Europe is currently focused on joint exploration of the Moon with Russia.
The landing of the device will take place in passive mode, the dimensions of the landing ellipse will be 15 by 30 km and will be determined by the accuracy of the pre-landing trajectory of the device. The probe must operate on the lunar surface for at least a year. Scientific experiments will be carried out on board to study the features of the polar regolith and polar exosphere of our natural satellite. The device will be equipped with a manipulator for operations to open the top layer of soil in the landing area, for moving soil samples to the onboard mass spectrometer, for pointing the onboard infrared spectrometer and TV camera to the most interesting areas of the surface in the vicinity of the landing site. The probe will experimentally measure the content of water and other volatile compounds in the surface layer.
The next device, the orbital Luna-26 (or Luna-Resurs-1 orbital), is scheduled to launch in 2021. If something goes wrong, the mission will be repeated in two years - in 2023. The dry weight of the device is 1035 kg, the total weight is 2100 kg. Payload weight – 160 kg. Launch also using the Soyuz-2.1A launch vehicle.
The Luna-26 apparatus will explore the Moon from a polar orbit, which will allow for a global survey of the entire surface and detailed studies of the polar regions. The service life in lunar orbit will be at least three years. During the first stage, geophysical studies of the Moon, lunar exosphere and surrounding plasma will be carried out in working orbits of 100x150 km and 50x100 km. At the second stage, the device will be transferred to the third working orbit of 500–700 km for physical research on the search and registration of cosmic particles of the highest possible energies - the LORD experiment (lunar orbital radio detector).
In addition, the orbiter will serve as a relay for the next mission, Luna-27 (or Luna-Resurs-1 landing), which is scheduled for 2023. If the 2023 mission is unsuccessful, the landing will be repeated in 2025.
The Luna-27 probe (it will also be launched by Soyuz-2.1A) will be heavier than the test Luna-25: the dry mass of the device will be 810 kg, the total mass will be 2200 kg. The payload mass will reach 200 kg, including a European drill for “cryogenic” (which does not evaporate “volatile” substances from the soil) drilling. This spacecraft will land in the most promising region of the south pole for further research and ensure the implementation of the program scientific research for a period of at least one year. The possibility of placing a mini-rover on Luna 27 is being considered.
The Luna-27 device will be created on the basis of on-board systems and technical solutions, worked out in the Luna-25 project. Its main feature will be the use of a high-precision landing system with the ability to avoid obstacles on the final stage of descent. This system will reduce the permissible error in the position of the landing point on the lunar surface to a size of the order of several hundred meters. Thanks to the high precision of the descent, the Luna 27 landing area will be selected based on the criteria of maximum convenience for priority scientific research.
The second feature of Luna-27 will be the use of both a direct radio communication system with ground stations and an independent VHF communication channel with the Luna-26 lunar polar satellite. The VHF channel will be used during the landing stage of the probe to transmit on board the orbital telemetric on-board information about the operation of all systems and about the properties of the surface in the landing area. In the event of an emergency or accident during landing, this information will allow you to completely restore the full picture of the process and find out the cause of the failure.
The third important feature of the Luna-27 project is a cryogenic soil sampling device, which will make it possible to take samples of lunar polar regolith from a depth of 10–20 cm to 2 meters and determine the nature of the distribution of volatile compounds at depth.
A radio beacon will be installed on board the Luna 27 probe, and it will be possible to continue its operation after the completion of the research program on board. To do this, the radio beacon's power supply will be switched to a direct connection to the on-board radioisotope generator.
It is planned that Luna-27 will be created with significant participation from ESA: many on-board systems, including high-precision landing, will be built by European specialists.
The last lunar station included in the FCP 2016–2025 is Luna-28 (“Luna-Resurs-2”, or “Luna-Grunt”). The mass of the probe will be about 3000 kg, the payload will be 400 kg. It will probably go to the Moon in 2025 using the Angara-A5 rocket with an oxygen-kerosene upper stage DM-03. The main goal of Luna-28 is to deliver samples of lunar matter from the vicinity of the south pole to scientific centers on Earth.
The Luna-29 probe, a large lunar rover with a “cryogenic” drill, is not included in the FCP 2016–2025, which means it will be implemented only in the second half of the 2020s.
In addition to the creation of automatic interplanetary stations, at the first stage of the lunar program, numerous research projects will be carried out on the topic of the lunar transport system and lunar infrastructure. Funding for them is included in the FKP. Funds are also allocated for the development of a super-heavy rocket: only for development - but not for creation “in the metal”!
...and later a person
As provided for in the Federal Space Program 2016–2025, flight tests of the new Russian spacecraft PTK NP (a new generation manned transport ship) will begin in 2021. In 2021–2023, the new spacecraft will launch to the ISS twice in an unmanned version. It is supposed to be launched into orbit using the Angara-A5 launch vehicle (possibly in a “shortened” version - without URM II).
According to the FCP 2016–2025, in 2024 the PTK NP should go into space for the first time in a manned version and deliver astronauts to the ISS or to the so-called Advanced Manned Orbital Infrastructure (PPOI). The PPOI presumably consists of one scientific and energy module, a hub module, an inflatable residential (“transformable”) module, a slipway module and one or two free-flying OKA-T-2 modules.
In addition, as part of testing the PTK NP, the possibility of an unmanned flight around the Moon is being considered. The slides presented by RSC Energia indicate the timing of such a mission - 2021, and also depict a two-launch scheme: one Angara-A5 launch vehicle launches into orbit an oxygen-kerosene upper stage DM-03, equipped with a docking unit and a docking system , and the second is a spaceship.
Elementary calculations show that according to this scheme, DM-03 can send a payload weighing no more than 10–11 tons on a flight around the Moon. It is not clear how industry experts are going to solve this problem - whether they will use the PTK “lunar version” propulsion system for additional acceleration NP or will they limit themselves to flight in a highly elliptical orbit, “not reaching” the Moon?
Judging by the slides of RSC Energia, manned flights of the Moon on the PTK NP should take place already in 2024. However, in the FCP 2016–2025, flight tests of the lunar version of the PTK NP are planned only for 2025. And similar discrepancies in the proposals of enterprises, federal program and there are incredibly many concepts. The documents resemble a patchwork quilt rather than a single, complete plan.
In addition, as shown on the slides, in 2023 (in the “concept of the lunar program” other dates are named - 2025) it is planned to send a prototype tug with low-thrust engines and a large cargo container (cargo - 10 tons) into lunar orbit: will it be “nuclear tug” or something equipped with large solar panels? The first option seems more logical, but the slides show the second - with solar panels. The prototype will probably have a power of 0.3–0.5 MW, 2–3 times less than a megawatt complex.
As already mentioned, Russia’s lunar plans are not limited to FKP 2016–2025. Scientists and engineers in the space industry are also trying to develop a long-term concept for a national program for lunar exploration until 2050.
Lunar orbital station, outpost and base
In accordance with the Concept of the National Lunar Exploration Program, flights of a super-heavy rocket with a payload in low Earth orbit of about 80–90 tons should begin as early as 2026. It should be noted that other sources give more realistic dates for the first launch of the “super heavy” – 2028–2030. In its first flight, the new launch vehicle, using new powerful upper stages, will send an unmanned PTK NP into orbit around the Moon.
At the end of 2027, a large megawatt-class space tug with low-thrust engines should bring a cargo weighing 20 tons into lunar orbit in 7–8 months. Moreover, the tug itself is launched by a super-heavy rocket, and the cargo by an Angara-A5. The cargo can be a module of a lunar orbital station or a heavy probe/landing scientific platform.
The Moon-Orbit program is planned for the period from 2028 to 2030. A reusable lunar automatic spacecraft (MLAC) “Corvette” will be sent to the Earth’s natural satellite, and a tanker with fuel to refuel it will be sent to lunar orbit. The probe will be able to deliver soil samples from the surface to the NP PTK (which will be in lunar orbit). There are various versions of the program, in particular involving the use of lunar rovers.
The next stage of lunar exploration, after 2030, will probably be the construction of a station in lunar orbit. The station will consist of energy (launch in 2028), hub (2029), residential (2030) and storage (2031) modules. The operating mode of the mini-station is visiting. Its main tasks: providing comfortable living conditions for astronauts while working in orbit around the Moon and logistics support for lunar missions. Starting from 2037, it will be necessary to replace station modules that have exhausted their service life.
Long-awaited manned flights with astronauts landing on the lunar surface are also planned after 2030. The first launches will be carried out according to a two-launch scheme with separate extraction of bundles from the upper stages and the lunar take-off and landing vehicle, as well as the upper stages and the manned spacecraft. If this option is approved, then Russian cosmonauts will set foot on the lunar surface for the first time 15 years after the start of the lunar program and 62 years after the historic Apollo 11 flight.
One manned flight to the Moon is envisaged per year. With the introduction into operation in 2038 of the super-heavy class PH with a payload capacity of 150–180 tons, flights will be carried out on a single-launch basis with an increase in frequency to two or three per year.
According to the Long-Term Program for Deep Space Exploration, in parallel with manned expeditions, the deployment of a so-called “lunar testing ground” will begin in the southern polar region of the Moon. It will include automatic scientific instruments, telescopes, prototype devices for using lunar resources, etc. The test site will include a small lunar base - an outpost. The outpost is designed for crew living during a short-term (up to 14 days) stay on the lunar surface. The outpost will likely include modules: energy (launch in 2033), hub (2034), residential (2035), laboratory (2036) and warehouse (2037). The modules will be created based on the operating experience of the lunar orbital station.
The construction of a large lunar base is planned only for the 40s of the 21st century. The modular composition of the base will be similar to that of the outpost, but it will ensure the life activity of astronauts for a longer period and have increased radiation protection.
In the 2050s, based on lunar experience, and possibly lunar resources, a flight to Mars will be undertaken. And before this time, until 2050, it is planned to deliver soil from Phobos (the Phobos-Grunt-2 mission, or Boomerang, is already included in the FCP 2016–2025 and is scheduled for 2024–2025) and Mars (2030–2035 years), create an assembly complex at the Lagrange point for reusable ships that will fly along the Earth-Mars route, build a fleet of “nuclear tugs” with electrical power 4 MW and above.
The creators of the Long-Term Program previously estimated the cost of lunar exploration. According to their calculations, in the period from 2014 to 2025, annual costs will range from 16 to 320 billion rubles (in total, about 2 trillion rubles will be spent during this period) and will be determined mainly by the costs of creating ships, manned modules, inter-orbital tugs and facilities excretion.
In the next decade (2026–2035), when, in addition to the development and flight testing of space assets involved in the implementation of the lunar program, intensive operation of space systems begins, annual costs will range from 290 to 690 billion rubles (peak load falls on 2030–2032 – the period of the first landing of astronauts on the surface of the natural satellite and the beginning of construction of a lunar orbital station), and the total costs for this period are almost 4.5 trillion rubles. Starting from 2036 and until 2050, annual costs will range from 250 to 570 billion rubles (total costs for this period are about 6 trillion rubles).
Thus, the total cost of the program from 2015 to 2050 is estimated at 12.5 trillion rubles. Less than 10% of the total financial costs (excluding flight testing costs) will be spent on the development of all space means necessary for its implementation (including launch vehicles and inter-orbital transportation). The main financial burden for the entire period under review (2014–2050) falls on the operation of space technology (over 60% of total costs).
Questions, questions...
For the first time in many years, a complete strategy for the development of manned space exploration for tens (!) years to come has been submitted to the government for approval. The choice of the Moon as a strategic goal– after all, a Martian expedition without relying on lunar resources and lunar experience will turn into a risky one-time “flag stick”.
Moon or Mars?
The main question that arises after becoming familiar with the new Russian space strategy is the timing. The 2030s, 2040s, 2050s are too far away to take such plans seriously. There is a fear that delays in the implementation of the lunar project will lead to the state wanting to “jump off the lunar train, which is barely crawling,” and cancel the program. In the event of such a negative scenario, resources for the development (and possibly the creation) of “lunar funds” will be wasted.
It also looks strange to link the program to the new (not yet implemented) relatively heavy (14–15 tons in the near-Earth and 20 tons in the near-lunar version) PTK NP spacecraft, which will require the creation of a super-heavy rocket with a payload capacity of 80–90 tons to deliver it to lunar orbit. low Earth orbit.
Several years ago, the American company Space Adventures, which sells “tourist” seats on Russian Soyuz spacecraft, with the consent of RSC Energia, offered an interesting service - a flyby of the Moon. According to the presented flight diagram, the DM upper stage with a passive docking unit is launched into low orbit by a Proton-M heavy-class rocket, then a ship with a pilot and two tourists is launched to it on the Soyuz launch vehicle. The Soyuz spacecraft docks with the upper stage - and the bunch goes on a flyby of the Moon. The journey takes 7–8 days. The company calculated that making changes to the technology and organizing the flight would cost $250–300 million (excluding an unmanned flight to test the system).
Of course, a flight into orbit around the Moon is much more complicated than a flyby mission, but using the modified Soyuz instead of the PTK NP, as well as the oxygen-hydrogen upper stage KVTK for launching from low-Earth orbit and the modernized Fregat for braking and accelerating near the Moon, an orbital lunar expedition can be “fitted” into two Angara-A5 missiles. Of course, docking with a cryogenic upper stage in low-Earth orbit is a rather risky operation, however, such an action is present both in the state strategy (a two-launch flyby mission at the PTK NP) and in proposals Space Adventures.
Thus, the need to create a super-heavy rocket for human flights into orbit around the Moon is by no means obvious. The use of such a missile moves the mission from the category of realistic plans for the next decade to the category of “strategy” with a deadline for implementation “closer to 2030.”
Finding commercial payloads for a super-heavy carrier will be either very difficult or simply impossible, and maintaining a complex infrastructure for two lunar flights a year is extremely wasteful. Any financial or political crisis (and they happen in Russia with regularity approximately once every 8-10 years) will put an end to such a project.
It should also be noted that in the proposed program there is a dispersion of forces: instead of creating a lunar base, industry will be forced to engage either in the “Moon - Orbit” program or in the construction of a lunar orbital station, the need for which is extremely poorly justified.
Advantages and disadvantages of a lunar base relative to a station in orbit around the Moon
Advantages of the lunar base:
– Access to lunar resources (regolith, ice), the ability to use lunar resources (regolith) for protection from radiation;
– Absence of weightlessness and related problems;
– Normal living conditions (eating, shower, toilet);
– Empty hulls from cargo modules can be used to increase the habitable volume of the base (in the case of a lunar orbital station, new modules increase its mass and fuel costs for orbit correction);
– The base, located at the “peak of eternal light,” is illuminated by the Sun almost all year round: it is possible to use solar energy to generate electricity and simplify the thermal control system;
– The ability to explore the Moon using field geological methods (and not remotely – from orbit);
– When using the “direct scheme”, launch to the Earth is possible at almost any time (synchronization of orbits and docking in the orbit of the Moon are not required);
– Experience in the construction of planetary bases;
– Higher propaganda effect compared to the lunar orbital station.
Disadvantages of the lunar base:
– It is required to create landing platforms for delivering cargo and astronauts to the surface of the Moon;
– Operating conditions on the surface of the planet will differ from conditions in orbit, which will require the development of fundamentally new habitable modules;
– Research of the lunar surface is possible only in the vicinity of the base;
– Relatively high cost of deployment and operation.
It is strange that a nuclear tug with low-thrust engines, which has no analogues in the world, is extremely poorly represented in the long-term deep space exploration program. But it is precisely this unique development that could help significantly save time: to deliver heavy loads (about 20 tons) into orbit around the Moon by a nuclear tug, a super-heavy carrier is not needed. Tug flights along the “earth orbit – lunar orbit” route could begin in the first half of the 2020s!
On the one hand, of course, it cannot be said that the motto of the proposed program is “A flag on the Moon at any cost!” (the first landing is after 2030), and on the other hand, the use of the Moon as a resource base is not visible: there are no proposals for a reusable lunar transport system, and the generation of fuel/energy from local resources is not stated as a priority task.
There are not so many places in the polar regions of the Moon where all the conditions necessary for the quick and convenient deployment of a lunar base are met (flat surface, “eternal light”, the possible presence of lenses of water ice in shadowed craters nearby), and for them a fire could flare up. competitive fight. And by postponing the creation of a manned lunar infrastructure until the 2030s, and the construction of a base until the 2040s, Russia may miss the priority and lose the lunar territories forever!
When criticizing, suggest!
Following this principle, about a year ago the author of the article proposed his own version of the project for deploying a lunar base - “Moon Seven” (the seventh landing of man on the Moon). Thanks to the help of a group of enthusiasts, including representatives of the space industry, it was possible to first approximate the parameters of both the base itself and the transport system necessary for its construction.
The main idea of this proposal is “Fly today!”, that is, the project uses only those means the creation of which is possible in the near (+5 years) future.
It is planned to use the modernized Angara-A5 rocket as the basis of the transport system. Two options for upgrading the carrier are proposed. The first is the replacement of the four-chamber RD0124A engine with a thrust of 30 tf on the URM II with two RD0125A engines with a total thrust of 59 tf. This possibility does not require significant changes in the design of the launch vehicle and has already been considered by the M.V. Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center. The second modernization option is to replace the URM II and the oxygen-hydrogen upper stage of the KVTK with one large oxygen-hydrogen upper stage, which will significantly increase the mass of the launch vehicle on the departure trajectory to the Moon.
To enter lunar orbit and land, the project uses a landing stage based on the existing and tested Fregat RB. The author is aware that space technology is not children's construction blocks and significant modification sometimes means a complete rework of the upper orbital or spacecraft.
According to preliminary calculations, a transport system based on the modernized “Angara-A5”, an oxygen-hydrogen upper stage and a “lunar frigate” will be able to deliver to the surface of the Moon a clean cargo weighing 3.2–3.6 tons (depending on the chosen version of the launch vehicle modernization and not including dry mass “lunar frigate” ≈1.2 t).
In the Moon Seven proposal, all cargo—base modules, a power plant, an unpressurized lunar rover, tankers, and a two-seater manned spacecraft—must be included in these “quanta” of mass.
The design of the manned lunar spacecraft is based on the use of the bodies of the descent module and the Soyuz living compartment. The ship lands on the surface of the Moon without fuel for the return trip - the supply necessary for the return must first be delivered by two tankers.
The possibility of “squeezing” a manned spacecraft, consisting of a spacecraft, a BO (the living compartment also serves as an airlock) and a “lunar frigate” with landing legs, into 4.4–4.8 tons is questionable. It is clear that this will require a high “weight culture” and a new elemental base. However, let us recall: the mass of the maneuvering two-seat Gemini spacecraft, capable of performing rendezvous and docking in orbit, was 3.8 tons.
The direct flight pattern, without docking in lunar orbit, despite all its disadvantages, also has a number of advantages. The ship does not wait for the return expedition in orbit for a long time. The problem of having stable lunar orbits is removed (due to the influence of the Earth, the Sun and mascons under the surface, not all lunar orbits are stable). A unified landing platform is used both for the delivery of base modules and other cargo, and for a manned spacecraft. Any other options for the transport system require the development of new elements and new spacecraft. There are no complex docking operations at the Earth or at the Moon, which means that the installation of a docking station and other docking systems will not be required. You can launch to Earth almost at any time. And most importantly, all operations are carried out in connection with the base infrastructure, which avoids duplication (simultaneous construction of a station in orbit and a base on the surface).
The scheme with heavy SA landing on the surface is not energetically optimal. The “Moon Seven” proposal also considered “classical” options for an expedition with docking in lunar orbit, but they require the creation of not only a separate light lunar ship, but also a lunar takeoff and landing module, which greatly complicates the concept.
“Moon Seven V.2.0” is also being considered - a version in which not a new spacecraft, but a modernized Soyuz spacecraft is used for flights into orbit around the Moon. In this case, a launch vehicle with a payload capacity of about 40 tons in low Earth orbit or a multi-launch scheme with numerous dockings will be required (which increases the cost of the program and increases the time before the first flights).
The area of the south pole of the Moon, namely the Malapert mountain, was chosen as the location for the deployment of the first lunar settlement (rather, the “first tent”). This is a fairly flat plateau with a direct line of sight to the Earth, which provides good conditions for communication and is a convenient place for landing. Mount Malapert is the “peak of eternal light”: it has sunlight 89% of the time, and the duration of the night, which happens only a few times a year, does not exceed 3–6 days. In addition, near the site of the proposed base there are shadowed craters in which lenses of water ice can be detected.
Calculation of the reserves of the base’s life support system shows that with a moderate limitation in water and oxygen (similar to that already achieved at orbital stations), for a crew of two people to operate, it is sufficient to send one three-ton module with reserves per year (and when switching to partial use of local resources -- even less). As the base grows, the number of crew members will be increased to four people, which means the annual dispatch of two modules with cargo will be required. These modules are docked to the base and, after using up the reserves, form additional residential volumes.
The proposed scheme for deploying, supporting and expanding the base requires no more than 13 launches of heavy (not super-heavy!) missiles per year.
The base modules are self-propelled and equipped with motor wheels, which greatly simplifies the assembly of the lunar “first tent” and eliminates the need to urgently create a lunar rover-crane for transportation.
The base of the first stage includes two residential modules with life support systems and cosmonaut cabins, a service (main command post) and scientific modules, a storage module with supplies for the first crew and a separate power station module.
Before the construction of the base, using a unified transport system, it is proposed to deliver a communications satellite into lunar orbit in one launch (after the base is deployed, communications in its vicinity can be provided using a repeater tower, but at initial stage a satellite is required) and light automatic lunar rovers (2–3 pcs.) directly on the plateau of Mount Malapert. The rovers will make the final selection of the location for the deployment of the base, and will also install radio and light beacons to form a coordinate grid, which will help to carry out the precise landing of modules, tankers and manned ships.
To protect the base crew from radiation, it is proposed to use a cable-rod roof, which is delivered to the Moon in a folded state. Subsequently, after opening it, a layer of regolith about a meter thick is applied to the roof using a soil thrower. This option is the preferred “traditional” backfill for modules, since it allows access to the outer surface of the “barrels” and does not create additional difficulties for expanding the base (additional modules simply slide under the roof and are joined to the main structure). In addition, when using a roof, the amount of excavation work is reduced.
The proposal “Moon Seven” also examines in detail the unpressurized lunar rover of the first stage base, equipped with a detachable module with a jaw scoop. The possibility of using one of the base modules as a sealed lunar rover was assessed. Calculation of the base solar power plant has been completed: most its masses are batteries that allow it to survive a short night at the “peak of eternal light.”
As the main communication system with the Earth, it is proposed to use a laser installation similar to the one that was already tested during the LADEE (Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer) mission. The weight of the equipment on the American probe was only 32 kg, power consumption was 0.5 W, and the information exchange speed reached 20 Mb/s. On Earth, four telescopes with a mirror diameter of 40 cm were used for reception. Of course, in the case of a lunar base, backup communication channels in the radio range will be required.
The cost of creating the Luna Seven base of the first (crew of two people) and second (crew of four people) stages, according to preliminary estimates, will be 550 billion rubles. The possible duration of the project is ten years from the start of the decision, five years of which will involve the actual deployment of the base and the work of the crews. At the third stage - with the advent of nuclear tugs with low-thrust engines and carriers with a higher lifting capacity relative to the Angara-A5 - the deployment and supply scheme for the base changes.
With the acquisition of experience, new technologies for lunar construction begin to be introduced: inflatable domes, 3D printers for printing from regolith, special equipment for creating artificial caves.
The goals of our proposed project: securing one of the promising sites on the Moon for Russia, gaining experience in building planetary bases and life on other planets in the shortest possible time, testing technologies and methods developed on Earth in real lunar conditions, exploring the Moon and searching for resources. Various options for making a profit are also being explored - from paid telecontrol of lunar rovers to the supply of matter and energy.
In conclusion, we note that the author did not set the task of contrasting the “Moon Seven” proposal with the state program (strategy) for the exploration of the Moon. The goal is only to demonstrate that various options for such development are possible, including those that do not “go away” beyond the 2030s and 2040s.
Roscosmos is preparing to participate in the project to build a lunar visited station, Deep Space Gateway (DSG), proposed by NASA. The idea is to create a multi-module visited station in a halo orbit several thousand kilometers from the Moon. Such a station should become a new laboratory for studying space effects and a support for further manned research flights to the Moon and Mars.
The project was presented to NASA in March 2017, when the course to the Moon of the new administration of US President Donald Trump became obvious. NASA under Barack Obama abandoned the idea of reaching the Moon and designated the goal of Mars with a transitional stage of visiting a near-Earth asteroid - Asteroid Redirect Mission. Due to the complexity, and most importantly the duration, of the outlined strategy, the approach of the new president is aimed at bringing any significant results closer. First, he launched people to the Moon immediately in the first test flight of the SLS rocket and the Orion spacecraft in 2019, but technical experts dissuaded him - the risk was high.
It is easier to launch from the Moon to Mars. If you assemble a Martian ship in a lunar halo orbit, gradually bringing in fuel tanks and structural elements, you can save up to a third of the fuel mass for the flight, compared to launching from near-Earth orbit. You can achieve even greater savings if you grab part of the station in the form of a compartment of a Martian ship.
Don't forget the political motive. Today, the main foreign policy enemy of the United States is China. And he is already getting closer to creating his own near-Earth station. Therefore, it is important for the United States to emphasize its continued technological superiority, the lunar station is excellent for this, and here Russia, Europe and Japan are simply helping in this.
What interest does Russia have here?
Despite Russia's political differences with the United States, common sense, backed by economic motives, has prevailed in the Russian space industry. For Roscosmos, cooperation with NASA in the 90s under the Mir program, and in the 2000s under the ISS program, practically ensured the safety and high level of manned astronautics. The ISS project has now been extended until 2024, and after that no one could name a goal that is worthy and at the same time feasible for the budget. Despite the declared lunar ambitions, as soon as money came up when adopting the Federal Space Program for 2015-2025, the first thing that went under the knife was a super-heavy rocket, without which reaching the Moon is extremely difficult. There was hope for a four-launch scheme with the Angara A5B, but we had to forget about it when it became clear that there was no other demand for this rocket, and there would be only one launch pad at Vostochny. Only the developments of the interplanetary spacecraft "Federation" were able to be preserved, but without the "Angara-A5V" it is doomed to near-Earth flights, where the Soyuz-MS, ready for work, now dominates.
Even if we assume that there is money in the budget for a super-heavy rocket, is it worth tearing up the industry for ten years in order to repeat Armstrong’s walk 60 years ago? What then? Stop all work and forget, like the USA did in the 70s?
As a result, until yesterday, Roscosmos was in a stalemate - there was no money and there was no particular point in flying to the Moon, but near the Earth it only makes sense to fly to the ISS, which will soon end. But with entering into a lunar partnership, everything changes.
Firstly, opportunities are again emerging for obtaining orders for the development and operation of equipment for NASA. Secondly, a long-term meaning appears in the super-heavy rocket and interplanetary flights, because we are not just flying for self-affirmation, but we are flying to work to develop technology and advance humanity into deep space, and to a large extent not at our own expense. Thirdly, the industry receives a long-awaited new stimulus for development: the Federation ship, new station modules, life support systems, spacesuits, instruments, lunar satellites, lunar rovers finally make sense... Young teams can finally realize themselves without repeating Soviet schemes , but to bring something of our own at a modern level.
The participation of Roscosmos also helps NASA. The programs that NASA tried to develop alone: Constellation, Asteroid Redirect Mission, turned out to be very vulnerable to changes in internal political course. International partnership imposes mutual obligations and the refusal of a project acquires not only economic, but also political overtones, and here no one wants to lose extra points. This also applies to Russian international programs.
So, despite the predominant participation of the United States in the DSG project, the dependence of the partners here is mutual, which, in fact, is called cooperation in space exploration. This can only be welcomed.
Lunar station Deep Space Gateway (left). Render: NASA
NASA representatives announced details of the Deep Space Gateway space program, which will become preparatory stage to the Mars mission. The program will explore cislunar space, where astronauts must build and test systems before traveling into deep space, including to Mars. Robotic missions with descent to the lunar surface will also be tested here. Astronauts from cislunar space will be able to return home within a few days if a problem arises. It takes much longer for them to get from Martian orbit, so NASA prefers to first conduct tests at a closer distance - near the Moon.
The exploration of cislunar space will begin with the first launch of the Space Launch System (SLS) launch vehicle with the Orion spacecraft. The three-week exploration mission is called Exploration Mission-1 (EM-1). It will be unmanned. Nevertheless, this mission should be a remarkable event for astronautics, since it will be the first time in history that a spacecraft designed for humans will fly so far from Earth.
Orion spacecraft. Render: NASA
The launch of the SLS with the Orion spacecraft will take place from launch complex 39B at the cosmodrome of the Space Center. Kennedy, presumably at the end of 2018. Once in orbit, Orion will deploy its solar panels and head toward the Moon. The spacecraft will be propelled by the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (ICPS), which is located on the SLS launch vehicle directly below the Orion spacecraft as the rocket's upper stage.
Intermediate cryogenic propulsion system. Render: NASA
The journey to the moon will take several days. Upon completion, Orion will undock from ICPS, and the latter, in turn, will release several CubeSat mini-satellites into space. Together with the spacecraft, the SLS rocket is capable of lifting into orbit 11 mini-satellites, each 6 units in size.
It is assumed that one of the satellites in cislunar space will be BioSentinel, which for the first time in the last 40 years will carry an terrestrial life form into deep space. The goal of the BioSentinel science program is to study the effects of cosmic radiation on living cells during the 18 months of satellite operation.
NASA plans to get into a rhythm and do one launch per year in the 2020s. The first manned flight is scheduled for August 2021.
The plan for this flight is based on the translunar injection (TLI) profile - a kind of acceleration maneuver with a trajectory that puts the ship into lunar orbit. The trajectory is shown in the diagram below, where the red dot indicates the location of the TLI maneuver. Before launching toward the Moon, the spacecraft will orbit the Earth twice, gradually increasing speed in preparation for TLI.
The Orion spacecraft will go back to Earth using a gravitational maneuver, turning around the Moon. During this flyby, the crew will fly thousands of kilometers beyond the Moon. For the first manned mission, NASA set a flexible timeline. The mission can last from 8 to 21 days.
NASA has defined goals and objectives for lunar missions. Together with experiments on the ISS, these scientific projects will prepare for future missions in deep space.
Flight equipment for the first and second SLS and Orion missions is now in production, with life support systems and related technologies being tested on the ISS. Development work continues to create housing and the propulsion system of the ship on which people will go to Mars, here NASA is working closely with private companies and foreign partners who offer their own solutions to existing problems.
Lunar spaceport
During the first lunar missions, NASA is going to not only test systems and prove flight safety, but also build a Deep Space Gateway spaceport in lunar orbit, which will become a gateway for studying the lunar surface and an intermediate stage before sending astronauts to Mars.There will be a power source, a habitation module, a docking module, an airlock chamber, and a logistics module. The propulsion system will use primarily electric propulsion to maintain the lunar station's position or move to different orbits for different missions in the lunar vicinity, NASA writes.
Three main modules of the lunar station - power point, a habitation module and a logistics module - will be lifted into orbit by the SLS rocket and delivered by the Orion spacecraft.
NASA is going to maintain and use the Deep Space Gateway with its partners - how commercial companies, and foreign partners.
Deep space transport
At the next stage, NASA plans to develop the Deep Space Transport (DST) spacecraft, specifically designed for flights in deep space, including to Mars. This will be a reusable ship powered by electric and chemical propulsion. The ship will pick up people from the lunar spaceport, take them to Mars or another destination - and then return them back to the Moon. Here the ship can be repaired, refueled, and sent on its next flight.
The vehicle will be tested over the next decade, and NASA plans to conduct a year-long crewed Deep Space Transport test in the late 2020s. The astronauts will spend 300-400 days in cislunar space. This mission will be a dress rehearsal before sending astronauts to Mars. To date, the record for staying in deep space is 12.5 days for 17 Apollo crew members.
It is no secret that the exploration of the Moon and the creation of a habitable base on it is one of the priorities of Russian cosmonautics. However, to implement such a large-scale project, it is not enough to organize a one-time flight, but it is necessary to build an infrastructure that would allow regular flights to the Moon and from it to Earth. To do this, in addition to creating a new spacecraft and a super-heavy launch vehicle, it is necessary to create bases in space, which are orbital stations. One of them may appear in Earth orbit as early as 2017-2020 and will be developed in subsequent years by increasing modules, including those for launching to the Moon.
It is expected that by 2024 the station will be equipped with power and transformable modules designed to work with lunar missions. However, this is only part of the lunar infrastructure. The next important step is lunar orbital station, the creation of which is included in the Russian space program. Starting from 2020, Roscosmos will consider technical proposals for the station, and in 2025 the draft documentation for its modules should be approved. At the same time, computers and scientific equipment for the lunar orbital station will begin to be developed in 2022, in order to begin ground-based development in 2024. The lunar station should include several modules: an energy module, a laboratory, and a hub for docking spacecraft.
Speaking about the need for such a station in the orbit of the Moon, it should be noted that you can fly from the Moon to Earth only once every 14 days, when their orbital planes coincide. However, circumstances may require an urgent departure, in which case the station will be simply vital. In addition, it will be able to solve a whole range of problems of a different nature, from communications to supply issues. According to a number of experts, the most rational option would be to locate a lunar orbital station at the Lagrange point, located 60,000 km from the Moon. At this point, the gravitational forces of the Earth and the Moon are mutually balanced, and from this place it will be possible to launch to the Moon or Mars with minimal energy costs.
The flight path to the Moon will probably look like this. The launch vehicle launches the spacecraft into orbit, after which it will be received by the Russian space station located in Earth orbit. There it will be prepared for further flight, and if necessary (if the mass of the ship must be increased), the ship will be assembled here from several modules launched in several launches. Having launched, the ship will cover the distance to the Russian lunar orbital station and dock with it, after which it can remain in orbit, and the descent module will fly to the Moon.
