Kshatriyas, the gods of Brahmin, are subject to agreement. Laws of Manu

He who loves God can no longer love man, he has lost his understanding of humanity; but also vice versa: if someone loves a person, truly loves with all his heart, he can no longer love God.

India is an ancient country approximately 8 thousand years old. The amazing Indian people lived on its territory. Which were divided into several social classes. Where priests played an important role. Although historians do not know who ruled such an amazing state. The Indians had their own language and writing. Their writings cannot be deciphered by scientists to this day. The ancient Indians gave humanity such agricultural crops as cotton and sugar cane. They made thin chintz fabric. They domesticated the largest animal in the world, the elephant. They revered and believed in different gods. Location ancient india. Animals were deified. Along with the gods, the Vedas, the Sanskrit language and the Brahmins were revered as guardians of culture and sacred knowledge. Brahmins were considered living gods. This is a very interesting state and people.

Ancient state of India

Location and nature. In the south of Asia, beyond the Himalayan range, there is an amazing country - India. Its history goes back almost 8 thousand years. However, modern India differs in size from the ancient country of the same name. Ancient India was approximately equal in area to Egypt, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Iran, Syria, Phenicia and Palestine combined. This vast territory had a variety of natural conditions. In the west, the Indus River flowed; it rained relatively rarely, but in the summer there were large floods. Spacious steppes spread out here. In the east they carried their waters to Indian Ocean rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra. It always rained heavily here, and the entire land was covered with marshy swamps and impenetrable jungle. These are dense thickets of trees and bushes, where twilight reigns even during the day. The jungle was home to tigers, panthers, elephants, poisonous snakes and a huge variety of insects. In ancient times, the central and southern parts of India were mountainous areas where it was always hot and there was a lot of rain. But the abundance of moisture was not always a good thing. Dense vegetation and swamps were a great obstacle for ancient farmers, armed with stone and copper axes. Therefore, the first settlements appeared in India in the less forested north-west of the country. The Indus Valley had another advantage. It was closer to the ancient states of Western Asia, which facilitated communication and trade with them.

Formation of states in Ancient India

While scientists have little information about social order and culture of Indian cities. The fact is that the writing of the ancient Indians has not yet been deciphered. But today it is known that in the 3rd and first half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in the Indus Valley it was single state with two capitals. These are Harappa in the north and Mohenjo-Daro in the south. Residents were divided into several social classes. It is not known exactly who ruled the state. But the priests played a big role. With the decline of the Indus state, the social organization also disintegrated. Writing was forgotten. Appearing in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e., the Aryans brought with them their social organization. It was based on the division of society into “us” (Aryans) and “strangers” (Dasas). Using the right of conquerors, the Aryans gave the Dasas a dependent position in society. There was also division among the Aryans themselves. They were divided into three estates - varnas. The first and highest varna were the brahmans - priests, teachers, guardians of culture. The second varna is kshatriyas. It consisted of military nobility. The third varna - Vaishyas - included farmers, artisans and traders. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the fourth varna appeared - the sudras. It means "servant". This varna included all non-Aryans. They were obliged to serve the first three varnas. The lowest position was occupied by the “untouchables”. They did not belong to any of the varnas and were obliged to do the dirtiest work. With the development of crafts, population growth and the complication of social life, in addition to varnas, an additional division into professions appeared. This division is called caste division. And a person fell into a certain varna, like a caste, by right of birth. If you are born in a brahmana family, you are a brahmana; if you are born in a sudra family, you are a sudra. Belonging to one or another varna and caste determined the rules of behavior of every Indian. Further development of Indian society led in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. to the emergence of kingdoms led by rajas. (In ancient Indian, “raja” means “king.”) At the end of the 4th century. BC e. A powerful empire is formed in India. Its founder was Chandragupta, who stopped the advance of the army of Alexander the Great. This power reached its greatest power under Chandragupta's grandson Ashok (263-233 BC). Thus, already in the 3rd - early 2nd millennium BC. e. There was a state in India. It was not only not inferior in its development, but at times surpassed Egypt and Mesopotamia. After the decline of the Indus culture and the arrival of the Aryans, the social structure of ancient Indian society became more complex. Its culture was created by the Aryans with the participation of the local population. At this time, a caste system took shape. A mighty empire arose. Changing, ancient Indian culture has existed to this day.

Economic life

Already in the 3rd millennium BC. e. The main occupation of the people of the Indus Valley was agriculture. Wheat, barley, peas, millet, jute and, for the first time in the world, cotton and sugar cane were grown. Livestock farming was well developed. The Indians raised cows, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, and elephants. The horse appeared later. The Indians were well acquainted with metallurgy. The main tools were made of copper. Location of ancient India. Knives, spear and arrow tips, hoes, axes and much more were smelted from it. Artistic casting, masterful stone processing, and alloys, among which bronze occupied a special place, were no secret to them. The Indians knew gold and lead. But at that time they did not know iron. Crafts were also developed. Spinning and weaving played an important role. The craftsmanship of the jewelers is impressive. They processed precious metals and stones, ivory and shells. Sea and land trade reached a high level. In 1950, archaeologists found the first port in history for ships to moor at low tide. The most active trade was with Southern Mesopotamia. Cotton and jewelry were brought here from India. Barley, vegetables, and fruits were brought to India. There were trade relations with Egypt and the island of Crete. Probably, the Indians exchanged with neighboring nomadic peoples and even built a city on the Amu Darya River. With the decline of Indian culture, economic life came to a standstill. Appeared in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Aryans were nomads and lagged significantly behind the Indians in economic development. The only thing in which the Aryans were ahead of the Indians was in the use of horses. Only at the turn of the 2nd - 1st millennia BC. e. the new population of India - the Indians - again switched to agriculture. Wheat, barley, millet, cotton and jute crops appeared. The farmers of the Ganges River valley reaped especially large harvests. Along with horses and cattle, the elephant occupied an important place in the economy. With its help, people successfully fought the impenetrable jungle. Metallurgy is developing. Having quickly mastered bronze, already at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Indians learned to mine iron. This greatly facilitated the development of new lands previously occupied by swamps and jungles. Crafts are also being revived. Once again, pottery and weaving occupy a prominent place in the economy. Indian cotton fabrics were especially famous, products from which could be threaded through a small ring. These fabrics were very expensive. They were named calico in honor of the goddess of arable land Sita. There were also simpler, cheaper fabrics. Only trade remained at a low level. It was limited to the exchange of goods between neighboring communities. Thus, the ancient Indians gave humanity such agricultural crops as cotton and sugarcane. They domesticated the largest animal in the world, the elephant.

CULTURE OF ANCIENT INDIAN

Languages ​​and writing of ancient India. At the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. India was a major power with a highly developed culture. But it is not yet known what language the inhabitants of the Indus Valley spoke. Their writing still remains a mystery to scientists. The first Indian inscriptions date back to the 25th - 14th centuries. BC e. The Indus script, which has no similarity, has 396 hieroglyphic characters. They wrote on copper tablets or clay shards, scratching the written signs. The number of characters in one inscription rarely exceeds 10, and the largest number is 17. Unlike the Indian language, the language of the ancient Indians is well known to scientists. It is called Sanskrit. This word translated means “perfect.” Many originated from Sanskrit modern languages India. It contains words similar to Russian and Belarusian. For example: Vedas; sveta—holy (holiday), brahmana-rahmana (meek). The gods and brahmins were considered the creators of Sanskrit and its guardians. Every person who considered himself an Aryan was required to know this language. “Strangers,” both Shudras and untouchables, had no right to study this language under pain of severe punishment.

Literature

Nothing is known about Indian literature. But the literature of the ancient Indians is a huge heritage for all humanity. The oldest works of Indian literature are the Vedas, written between 1500 and 1000 BC. BC e. The Vedas (literally wisdom) are sacred books in which all the most important knowledge for the ancient Indians was recorded. Their truthfulness and usefulness have never been disputed. The entire spiritual life of the ancient Indians was created on the basis of the Vedas. Therefore, Indian culture of the 1st millennium BC. e. called Vedic culture. Apart from the Vedas, Indian culture has produced a wide variety of works. All of them were written in Sanskrit. Many of them are included in the treasury of world literature. Location of ancient India. The first place in this series belongs to the great poems “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana”. The Mahabharata talks about the struggle of the sons of King Pandu for the right to rule the kingdom. The Ramayana tells the story of the life and exploits of Prince Rama. The poems describe the life of ancient Indians, their wars, beliefs, customs and adventures. In addition to great poems, Indians have created wonderful fairy tales, fables, myths and legends. Many of these works, translated into modern languages, are not forgotten to this day.

Religion of Ancient India

We know little about the religions of the ancient Indians. However, it is known that they believed in a mother goddess, a three-faced herdsman god, and some species of flora and fauna. Among the holy animals, the bull stood out. There was probably a cult of water, as evidenced by the numerous pools in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The Indians also believed in the other world. We know much more about the religions of the ancient Indians. Vedic culture created two great religions of the East at once - Hinduism and Buddhism. Hinduism originates from the Vedas. The Vedas are the first and main sacred books of Hinduism. Ancient Hinduism is different from modern Hinduism. But these are different stages of the same religion. Hindus did not believe in one god, but worshiped many. Chief among them were the god of fire Agni, the formidable god of water Varuna, the helper god and guardian of everything Mithra, as well as the god of gods, the great destroyer - the six-armed Shiva. His image is similar to the ancient Indian god - the patron of cattle. The idea of ​​Shiva is proof of the influence of the culture of the local population on the beliefs of the Aryan newcomers. Along with the gods, the Vedas, the Sanskrit language and the Brahmins were revered as guardians of culture and sacred knowledge. Brahmins were considered living gods. Around the 6th century. BC e. A new religion appears in India, which was destined to become world-wide. It is named after its first supporter, Buddha, which means “enlightened one.” Buddhism has no belief in gods, does not recognize anything that exists. The only saint is Buddha himself. For a long time there were no temples, priests or monks in Buddhism. The equality of people was proclaimed. The future of every person depends on correct behavior in society. Buddhism spread very quickly in India. In the II century. BC e. Emperor Ashoka adopted Buddhism. But at the beginning of our era, Buddhism was supplanted from India by Hinduism and began to spread to more eastern countries. It was at this time that the main sacred book of modern Hinduism appeared - “Bhagavad Gita” - “Divine Song”. A hunter and two pigeons (excerpt from the Mahabharata as retold by Y. Kupala) There lived a hunter in India. Without pity, he killed birds in the forest to sell them at the market. He separated bird families, forgetting the law of the gods.

INTERESTING ABOUT INDIA
Excavations at Mahenjo-daro

In 1921-1922 a great archaeological discovery was made. Archaeologists excavated a city three kilometers from the Indus River. Its length and elevation were 5 km. It was protected from river floods by artificial embankments. The city itself was divided into 12 roughly equal blocks. They had smooth, straight streets. The central block was raised to a height of 6-12 m. The elevation, made of clay and mud brick, was defended by square brick towers. It was main part cities.

Indian social structure according to ancient laws

For the sake of the prosperity of the worlds, Brahma created from his mouth, hands, thighs and feet, respectively, a brahmana, a kshatriya, a vaishya and a sudra. Specific activities were established for each of them. Education, study of sacred books, sacrifice for oneself and sacrifice for others, distribution and receipt of alms, Brahma established for brahmanas. Brahman is always first. Brahma instructed the kshatriyas to guard his subjects, distribute alms, make sacrifices, study sacred books, and not adhere to human pleasures. But under no circumstances does a kshatriya have the right to take more than a fourth of the harvest of his subjects. Cattle breeding, almsgiving, sacrifice, study of holy books, trade, money matters and agriculture were given to the Vaishyas by Brahma. But Brahma gave only one occupation to the sudras - serving the first three with humility.

Conclusion

To summarize, we can say that we know a lot about India. Although in the history of this ancient state there are still a lot of white spots that will one day be revealed to us. And everyone will learn about the greatness of Ancient India. World literature will receive priceless works of Indian authors. Archaeologists will excavate new cities. Historians will write interesting books. And we will learn a lot of new things. We will pass on our knowledge to the future generation without loss.

India is one of the oldest civilizations on the planet. The culture of this country influenced both nearby countries and regions thousands of kilometers away from Hindustan. Indian civilization arose at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. In archeology it is usually called Proto-Indian or Harappan. Already at that time, writing existed here, cities (Mohenjedaro, Harappa) with a thoughtful layout, developed production, centralized water supply and sewerage. Indian civilization gave the world chess and the decimal number system. Achievements of the ancient and medieval India in the field of science, literature and art, various religious and philosophical systems that originated in India influenced the development of many civilizations of the East and became an integral part of modern world culture. India is a huge country in southern Asia, stretching from the icy peaks of the Karakoram and the Himalayas to the equatorial waters of Cape Kumari, from the sultry deserts of Rajasthan to the swampy jungles of Bengal. India includes magnificent beaches on the ocean coast in Goa and ski resorts in the Himalayas. The cultural diversity of India amazes the imagination of anyone who arrives here for the first time. Traveling around the country, you understand that diversity is the soul of India. Once you drive a few hundred kilometers, you notice how the terrain, climate, food, clothing, and even music, fine arts, and crafts have changed. India can dazzle with its beauty, captivate with its hospitality, and puzzle with its contradictions. Therefore, everyone has to discover their own India. After all, India is not just another world, but many different worlds, united into one whole. The country's constitution alone lists 15 main languages, and total number languages ​​and dialects, according to scientists, reaches 1652. India is the birthplace of many religions - Hinduism, comparable to the layer of Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Islam, Christianity), Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. And at the same time, India is the largest Muslim country - the third largest in the world in terms of the number of followers (after Indonesia and Bangladesh). India is a federal state (according to the constitution, it is a union of states). India has 25 states and 7 union territories. States: Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal. The seven union territories include - Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagarhaveli, Daman and Diu, Delhi, Lakshadweep and Puttucherry (Pondicherry). The head of state is the president. In practice, executive power is exercised by the prime minister. The capital of India is Delhi. The area of ​​the republic is 3.28 million sq. km. The country is bordered in the west by Pakistan, in the north by China, Nepal and Bhutan, and in the east by Bangladesh and Myanmar. From the southwest it is washed by the waters of the Arabian Sea, from the southeast by the Bay of Bengal.

India is a country with unique traditions (Ancient India). The history of India is the history of an entire civilization. And the culture of India is a unique achievement of mankind. The geography of India is vast. The country is amazingly diverse natural areas. India can be roughly divided into four parts. Northern India is, first of all, the unique city of Delhi (the capital of the state). The most incredible architectural monuments are collected here, the leading place among which is occupied by numerous religious buildings. Moreover, in Delhi you can find temples of literally all world religions. In terms of the number of museums, the city will easily surpass any capital in the world. Be sure to visit the National Museum, the Archaeological Museum of the Red Fort, the National Gallery of Modern Art, the National Museum of Natural History, etc. At your service there will be thousands of retail outlets, unique oriental bazaars with their indescribable flavor, familiar to us from children's fairy tales, which is definitely worth plunging into . If you prefer a holiday by the sea, then Western India and Goa are for you. It is in this state that there are numerous beaches, magnificent hotels, a lot of entertainment complexes, casinos and restaurants. South India is the most densely populated part of the country, the area where hundreds of ancient Tamil temples and colonial forts are located. There are also sandy beaches here. Eastern India is associated primarily with the city of Kolkata, the administrative center of the state of West Bengal and the largest city in the country, one of the ten largest cities in the world. To travel to this country you need a visa, for which you will have to visit the Indian Embassy. And one more piece of advice. India is a country next to which the mysterious Nepal is located, do not forget about the excursion. You are already dreaming about India.

Don't judge a person by what views he holds, but judge by what he achieves with them.

ANCIENT EASTERN CIVILIZATION

Topic goals:

• Understand the historical conditions for the emergence and features of the social system of ancient Eastern states;
• Show despotism as political system ancient eastern states;

Topic questions:

1. Ancient Egypt.
2. Ancient Babylon.
3. Ancient India.
4. Ancient China.

Despotism (from ancient Greek δεσποτία ) unlimited power.

Despot (from ancient Greek δεσπότης lord

By “eastern despotism” is meant this form state power and at the same time suchpolitical regimewhen: a) the powers of the head of state are unlimited; b) secular and ecclesiastical authorities are united in one person; c) the exercise of power is the work of a large bureaucratic apparatus; d) suppression of personality, lack of freedoms, the most humiliating servility make every person, including formally free ones, a slave of “order,” tradition, faith.

1. Ancient Egypt.

The state of Ancient Egypt developed in the northeastern part of Africa, in the Nile River valley, where Agriculture was associated with the annual floods of the Nile and the construction of irrigation structures and the use of the labor of captive slaves. Class society in Egypt developed in the first half and not IV thousand BC, and the state was formed in the second half O the fault of this millennium. It was called the state of the nomes, which arose in Upper Egypt, which then conquered all of Egypt and pet.

The history of Ancient Egypt is divided into a number of periods:

Early Kingdom (31002800 BC);

Ancient or Old swarm kingdom (about 28002250 BC);

Average price stvo (about 22501700 BC);

New Kingdom (about 15801070 BC);

Later kingdom ( 7th century BC VI century BC).

Periods between Ancient, Middle and N O The first kingdoms were the time of economic and political decline of Egypt.New Kingdom Egypt was the first world power in history to conquer neighboring peoples. In her s O became Nubia, Libya, Palestine, Syria and other rich regions off the tee . At the end of the New Kingdom, Egypt falls into decline and becomes a prey to conquer e lei, first the Persians, then the Romans.

Social order: Main economic and society n The rural community was the new unit in Ancient Egypt, inside to o during which there was a stratification of society, the intensification of villages b economic economy, the appropriation of surplus product first by the communal elite, then by the centralized state rstvom.

The social structure in Ancient Egypt did not remain unchanged e preserved over many millennia of its history. Image O the rise of the main classes intensified at the end IV millennium BC At this time, the dominant social stratum was formed consisting of the tribal aristocracy, priests, wealthy communities n peasant peasants. This layer is increasingly separated from the main mass of free communal peasants, from which the arist is formed O the elite elite of the peasants.

It gradually takes away the function of managing complex irr. And gation system, contributes to the creation of a unified centralization O bathroom state. Its economic and political power is growing.From the time of the Old Kingdom, royal decrees have been preserved establishing the rights and privileges of temples and temple villages e nii, evidence of royal grants of land to the aristocracy and temples.

In the royal farms and the farms of the secular and ecclesiastical nobility, various categories of dependent forced persons worked: p A would be prisoners of war, fellow tribesmen, “servants of the king.”Slaves in Egypt were sold, bought, passed on by inheritance, as a gift, but sometimes they were planted on the land and endowed with property and took part of the harvest. Self-selling of Egyptians for debts and turning criminals into slaves was also practiced.

During the Middle Kingdom, trade with Syria and Nubia developed, cities grew, and agricultural production expanded.This led to the growth of the royal economy and the strengthening of the position of the private slave-owning economy, and the transformation of rural communities into tax-paying units.Among the peasant community members, called s fallen nedges (small), strong nedges stand out, ra With believing the rights of private landowners. Slaves, the disadvantaged poor, having ruined e Xia community members-peasants, the poorest strata of the urban population made up r A the powerful strength of the royal-temple households, Egyptian aristocracy, wealthy communities n nicks and rich artisans.

Increasing exploitation of free community members-peasants and various categories of the disadvantaged poor of the city and etc. e jealousy of slaves leads to an extreme aggravation of social contradictions at the end of the Middle Kingdom, which was expressed in a major uprising of the working masses against the existing system. This is a witness b speaks about the contradiction between the slaveholding state R lity and the main mass of free crosses exploited by it y yang.

The social structure of Ancient Egypt is even more complex T Xia in the New Kingdom, when Egypt turns into a huge de R I live an empire led by the all-powerful pharaoh-despot. The position of the ruling class changes depending on its occupied official hierarchy and location close to the pharaoh and his court. With unlimited power boost A After the reign of the pharaohs, a system of labor redistribution was being developed in the Middle Kingdom. This system is strengthened in the New Kingdom by e population census for the purpose of determining taxes, recruiting the army by age categories: youths, young men, men, old men.Architect, jeweler, artist attitude and belonged to the category of masters, which gave him the right to official ownership of land and not and given private property.

Officials and masters were contrasted with “ordinary people,” whose position was not much different from that of slaves, only they could not be beaten or sold as slaves.

Political system:The ancient Egyptian state was centralized at almost all stages of its development, for With excluding short periods of its disintegration.Even in the Ancient Kingdom, the features of eastern despotism appeared, the s A centralized bureaucratic apparatus is created, on which the pharaoh relies. The pharaoh is given the sacred title of “son of the sun god,” and a particularly solemn ritual is developed for their o rowing. As a symbol of the greatness of the pharaohs, the famous pyramids are built, which suppress the imagination of people, including at They show them sacred fear and reverence before the throne.

Ancient Egypt reached its greatest power during the New Kingdom, when the theocratic e sky despotism, strong and effective power of the center, completely d who was in charge of managing the communities.

The power of the pharaoh in Ancient Egypt was inherited T woo. Pharaoh was considered the high priest and god from whom A supposedly the harvest, justice and security hung. Every social b Any protest against the Tsar was considered a crime against religion. The pharaoh, as the bearer of supreme state power, had the right to the land fund of the state. He could grant land along with state slaves to the nobility, officials, priests, craftsmen, etc. The pharaoh was headed by a centralized administration A tive apparatus, appointed all senior officials, granted them lands and titles.Officials could simultaneously manage th civil, religious, military and judicial affairs I am bodied.

The royal court played a special role in governing the state.The development of the function of the state apparatus can be evidenced by changes e lack of authority of the pharaoh's first assistant jati. Jati first A la priest of the city residence of the ruler, at the same time the head of the royal palace, in charge of the court ceremonial, chancellor I pharaoh's rye. Over time, the jati exercises control over all government in the country at the center and locally, manages the land fund, the entire water supply system, concentrates the highest military power, and carries out the highest judicial functions. to tion. He reports everything to the king.

In ancient Egypt there was also the so-called. Institute of "obedient to the call" , which included major dignitaries, free and slaves, each in his own group.“Obedient to the call” these are those who could directly listen and had to carry out the order of the saint about his master.

In the system of governing bodies, a special role was played by the group of “big ones obedient to the king’s call” - courtiers, major nobles, statesmen, and the king’s bodyguards. They headed all the highest departments in the state in which their “obedient to the call” served. They were in charge of three departments T you military, tax and public works departments.

Local government: The Ancient Kingdom is a unification e large rural communities headed by community elders and o b women's advice jajats. Community councils, composed I Most of the representatives of wealthy peasants were local bodies of judicial, economic and administrative power.They registered acts of land transfer, monitored the state of the network and With artificial irrigation, the development of agriculture. In the Middle Kingdom In the New Kingdom, in connection with the strengthening of the central apparatus, both community councils and nomarchs representatives of small states lost their independence, in the New Kingdom the country was divided into regions and into two large districts Southern and Northern Egypt, headed by royal governors.

Army: In the Ancient Kingdom there were no regular armies A lo. The army was created in case of military operations to seize slaves, livestock, and other property from militias throughout the country. Participation in such military campaigns was a matter of arriving b nom. There were no personnel officers.

Development of foreign trade, expansion of state borders at the expense of neighboring territoriesdemanded the construction of a border h military fortresses, stronghold security posts, a fleet, and at the same time a regular army. Very early in Egypt a special b new military department“house of weapons”, which was in charge of arming the army, building fortresses, and building ships.For special valor and merit, warriors were awarded land plots, slaves, and livestock. In Egypt, a cadre of officers, the royal guard, and the king's personal guard began to form early. In New Tsar due to active foreign policy a large, combat-ready army is being created, special military exercises and training of soldiers are being conducted, and, along with cavalry and infantry, such a branch of troops as the war chariot is being created. Army first in you also performed a police function. During the era of the New Kingdom it began to be l hire special police officers I'm y.

Judicial system: At all stages of the development of Egyptian society, the court was not separated from the administration.In the Old Kingdom functions m e the local court is concentrated mainly in the community bodies itself O departments that resolve disputes over land and water, regulate family and inheritance relations. In the nomes, the royal judges were nomarchs, who bore the titles of “priests of the goddess of history.” And us". Higher supervisory functions over the activities of the royal at the dey was carried out by the pharaoh himself or the jati. He headed the highest court of the “six chambers” in the capital, and in the New Kingdom he headed e group of 30 judges. The pharaoh could appoint an extraordinary judicial panel of his proxies to investigate secret cases involving state criminals plotting against him.Temples also had certain judicial functions. R e The decision of the priest-oracle, who had enormous religious authority, could not be disputed by royal officials.

2. Ancient Babylon.

Occurred in II thousand BC ancient Babylonian state at the donation was preceded by a long history of the formation of the class O new society and state in Mesopotamia, where still in IV thousand BC agriculture began to develop, associated with carrying out and R irrigation works.

The first city-states began to emerge here at the end of IV early III thousand BC on the site of permanent settlements and businessmen. Growth of agricultural and handicraft industries h leadership contributed to the strengthening of Mesopotamian cities, social differences were clearly outlined, and a clan arist stood out O racy, a royal-temple economy developed, based on the appropriation of communal land.

In cities, the simplest administrative apparatus is developing, And concerned with irrigation issues, land accounting, temple management th devoutness, cult, community service, which then becomes the apparatus of the city-state with new functions to tsii.

Class stratification affected, first of all, two tribal groups inhabiting Mesopotamia: the Sumerians and the Akkadians, with which various other tribal groups merged, retaining the name A niya of its main parts Sumer in the South and Akkad in the North.

The first center of Sumerian civilization was Uruk. The most ancient of the cities founded by the Semites was Akkad, located O married on the banks of the Euphrates, during the reign of Sargon at the end of the 24th century. BC, which became the center of the first political unification of the northern and southern parts of Mesopotamia. Having created a relatively b extensive centralized Akkadian-Sumerian power, Sa R Gon took the title of “king of Sumer and Akkad”, “king of the four countries of the world”. In the XXII-XX centuries. BC. it is replaced by New Sumerian Din and stiya Hurray.

Ancient Babylonia has a special place in the history of the country. n kingdom, which reached its peak under King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC), whose borders extended from Persia d gulf to Syria. Babylon was repeatedly subjected to our e the influence of the mountain tribes, was destroyed, each time it rose from the ruins, but in the 3rd century. BC. actually ceases to exist and nie.

Social The structure of Babylon was particularly complex, which was associated with the multi-structured nature of its economy, with A the perfection of class education and the relatively high level of commodity-money relations.

The clearest social boundaries, overt forms of class-antagonistic contradictions appeared here between and between slaves and slave owners.Slavery took its toll A current on social relations, ideology, psychology, the law of Babylon.At the same time Slave work in Babylon never dominated in any of the branches of production. He was one of the And pov forced labor.

In the Neo-Babylonian kingdom, the slave increasingly acted as a landowner-tenant.Some slaves led their master th status as free, had a family, owned lands, houses, sometimes significant movable property, took and gave loans, sold and bought slaves and hired free people to work, in we set foot in court. While running his household, the slave was obliged to pay a kind of rent to his master every month.

In addition, there were two more separate groups in Babylon: the Avilum, who occupied the highest position, and the Mushk. e numbers serving the king and enjoying special legal rights and a shield.

Among the free, the exploitative elite stood out (tsa R church and temple officials, merchants, moneylenders), which is not taken into account A participated in production, but enriched itself at the expense of dependent tenants and community peasants by renting land, hiring other at ghih. A common form of dependence was debt bondage, which sometimes led debtors to slavery. b stvo.

Hammurabi's laws include a tamkar merchant. It included not only merchants, but also moneylenders and lenders, Nah O While serving in the royal service, tamkars made large trade transactions, pooled capital, created trade organizations, banko to the skies' houses.

Craftsmen (blacksmiths, carpenters, brewers, etc.) use A had some independence. User independence A There were organizations of some "scientific" professions, such as sp. e "exorcism" cialists, fortune tellers, doctors, scribes.

Political system:In Mesopotamia, the earliest form of government organization was the city-state.The first Mesopotamian city-states were led by And tel king, who bore the name ensi (“heading the clan”, “founding the temple”) or lugal (“big man”, “household”) I in", "lord"). Community meetings were convened in the cities and with O vets of elders, who elected rulers and overthrew them, determined them according to l powers.

Himself community assemblies had legislative, financial, judicial and maintenance functions. b public order.

The ruler of the city was the head of the community cult, in charge and R religious, temple and other public construction, led the army, chaired the council of art A reishin or in the people's assembly.

Under King Sargon and his successors, the central government, headed by the king himself, strengthened. The power of the king became inherited T venal and divine.Royal power reached its greatest degree of concentration in the ancient Babylonian kingdom.Hammurabi already enjoyed formally unlimited legislative power. He is in s became the head of a large administrative apparatus. Huge economic, political and political spheres were concentrated in his hands. O functions. However, community governing bodies, councils of elders, community meetings with ur continued to exist. e administrative, financial, judicial functions To tions, the function of maintaining public o row.

Some of the most ancient cities in Babylon (Nipur, Si P par, Babylon) had a special legal status, the inhabitants of their mo G whether to be exempt from taxes, labor service, about this service.

Judicial system: In Old Babylonian society before Ha m murapi the leading place belonged to temple and community the ladies , their councils or meetings.

These courts did not have jurisdiction over the royal people. Under Hammurabi, royal courts were introduced in all large cities, which tried the affairs of the royal people. There was no trial here at all b ny authorities.

Along with the professional courts of the king, there were OS O former judicial positions of heralds, policemen or bailiffs, court messengers and scribes. Judicial full Mochiya also had temples, which played an important role in taking oaths, in attesting the legality of transactions, etc. The temple council included Yu representatives of the people's assemblies and niya.

Army: Strengthening royal power in Sumerian cities state at The deeds were facilitated by the presence of a certain military force among their rulers and the creation of a standing army.

The transformation of King Sargon into the ruler of a mighty state T va contributed significantly to the creation of regular th ska from among the land-poor community landowners who received an additional allotment for their service from the royal e stranded.

Under Hammurabi, the final separation of the standing army from communal land ownership occurs.Warrior (redum, bairum) gender at He hopes for an allotment of royal land that will provide for him and his family. V o Indian allotments were excluded from all circulation, and every warrior’s transaction regarding land was considered insignificant. Even after being captured, the warrior retained the right to a land plot, part of the A The stock was saved for his young son. For violation of discipline P Lines and disclosure of secrets were severely punished by warriors. Service in And new was considered "eternal".

In addition to archers and heavily armed infantry, there were also chariot units. For military valor, commanders were rewarded A were given lands, were exempt from taxes and other duties n news.

3. Ancient India.

One of the ancient and original civilizations in the world is the highly developed culture in the Indus Valley, which has developed over IV thousand years ago with centers in Harappa and Mahenjo-Daro. U s it is stated that there is still III thousand BC here there were large cities-centers of handicraft production, developed agriculture, trade, and property stratification of the population. We have reached literary monuments of religious content - the Vedas, which later became the sacred books of the Hindus, as well as works by and the native epic (second half II thousand BC middle I millennium BC). According to the Vedic period, more fully characterize T the emergence and development of class b societies in the Ganges valley, the penetration of various Indo-Aryan tribes into Indian territory from the north-west.

More numerous and varied historical information relates to the so-called Magadha-Mauri period (second half I millennium BC I V. AD) the period of formation and existence of the largest city in the entire Ancient East O state formation of the Mauryan Empire (IV century BC II century AD). Among the literary monuments of this period, a special place is occupied by the ancient political treatise Arthashastra, And said to Kautilya, advisor to the founder of the Mauryan Empire, Chan d ragupta, as well as a whole series of religious, ritual and legal Brahmanical compilations dharmasutras and dharmashastras, best known under the name “Laws of M” A well" (II century BC - II century AD).

The process of class stratification of ancient Indian society began in the depths of scattered tribal communities what led to you the division of stronger clans that seized the reins of power e niya, military guard and priestly duties, transformation of the tribe n from the elite into a tribal aristocracy, the development of social and property inequality.

The growth of social class differences in Ancient India led to the formation of special class groups - varnas: brahmans (sacred n servants, priests), Kshatriyas (warriors, rulers), Vaishyas (landowners, artisans) and Shudras (servants, slaves).Various circumstances contributed to their formation: knowledge and monopolization of religious ceremonies, Vedic hymns, A military wars, etc.Brahmins and kshatriyas were presented as more full-fledged, full-fledged, and for their maintenance shares were regularly deducted from the agricultural product. and the title is Bali (tax), ever increasing and becoming a form of government R tional exploitation of ordinary community members-peasants.Primitive tribal state images A tions took shape in Ancient India in I millennium BC They were small state entities, in which O Many tribal government bodies grew into government bodies. These were monarchies where the leadership Yu The main role was played by the brahmanas, or oligarchic kshatriya republics, where the ruler was O military power of the kshatriyas.

The lands of the conquered tribes became the main source of forms And formation and development of state property, part of the cat O the swarm consisted of royal land, cultivated by slaves, hovered And by our tenants, the other part was transferred to the nobility, persons of the administrative apparatus in the form of official temporary awards O Vaniya in “feeding”.

They exploited community members-peasants, slaves and incomplete workers. V local residents of communities, the ruling class and the community top shka.

The ownership rights of communities in India differed exclusively y strength. The community had almost unlimited rights to With disposal of communal land: sell, rent, etc. A give it especially to temples.Communal property included pastures, irrigation facilities, and roads. The community, collectively responsible for collecting rent-tax, received part of the collections from the community And cow-peasants in their favor.

Communal land ownership coexisted with private peasantry n Chinese landownership or landownership of a large family, to O which could sell, give, or rent. Full-fledged community n nick the landowner himself could be an exploiter of slaves, landless hired workers. Howeverslave labor throughout the Dreux V in India was not predominant.

Legal status of certain population groups: Rights high monuments provide a vivid pictureclass-caste division V of Indian society, which acquired its most complete form here. This was expressed in the social, religious and legal status of representatives of individual varnas. Shudras believe became “once-born” and abstained from religious b rows of sacrifices. Brahmins, kshatriyas and vaishyas, as “twice-born”, had privileged rights. The severity of the punishment was also determined depending on the ownership and affinity to one or another varna and caste.

A special place in the social division of ancient Indian society e the space was occupied by slaves. The laws of Manu indicate seven categories of p A bovs and seven sources of slavery: captured (prisoner of war), slave for maintenance A nie, born in the house, bought, gifted, inherited and slave due to punishment.The master's right to control the life and death of a slave was generally recognized in Ancient India. The slave was sold, mortgaged, hired out, etc.

The Laws of Manu mention kshatriyas, vaishyas, brahmana shepherds, brahmana artisans, actors, servants who A whether different social status.

Political system:The first large states on those R India's rhetoric began to take shape VI IV centuries. BC. Victory in IV V. BC. Magadha in the northeastern part of the country gradually led to the creation of a vast Mauryan empire. Its borders extended from Kashimir and the Himalayas in the North to Ma th sura in the South, from the regions of modern Afghanistan in the West to the Bay of Bengal in the East.

The Mauryan Empire developed as a result of wars, the conquest of a number of tribes and peoples, the establishment of vassal relations between and do Magadha and individual principalities. This centralization R relied on military strength and a flexible policy of unifying the country. The empire includedsemi-autonomous statesretained their governing bodies and customs. These are vassal princes I deities and republican state-communities, g and us and the Singhs.

In the Mauryan Empire, the struggle between two tendencies did not stop: towards the establishment of autocratic rule and towards separatism, ra h fragmentation. Because of this, the central military administrative apparatus in India was relatively weak compared to others. at ny states of the Ancient East, which was closely connected with the preservation of the important role in the state of the bodies of the community itself O management. Even in the monarchical states of India, the power of the ancient Indian kings was not despotic in the full sense of the word. Religion, for example, excluded the legislator b functions of Indian kings, asserted the inviolability and immutability n ity of Vedic law. The Vedas could only be interpreted by a sage A mi. It was only under the strong king Ashoka that government decree began to be included among the sources of law."God-pleasing" king e The league prescribed a special duty (dharma) to protect A clan and, protecting the people, force them to pay bali (tax).The king administered justice, headed a d administrative apparatus, could be the guardian of minors, widows, the sick, fight against the And chemical disaster, hunger.

The royal officials were divided into high dignitaries (mantrinas, makhomatras), workers of the royal economy and treasury, and And novices in military and naval affairs, army supply, general V a great judge, advisers to the king, on the upbringing of his children, etc.The position of officials was hereditary, which resulted A lo from the caste system.

Local government system: included 5 large provinces headed by princes, border provinces n tions ruled by other members of the royal family, districts headed e by district commanders.

Rural areas were divided into 4 types: consisting of 800, 400, 200 and 100 villages, headed by corresponding managers I'm mi. Their responsibilities included: collecting taxes, monitoring O side by side, carrying out agricultural irrigation work and some about which others.

Court: There were two systems of courts in India: royal and intra-communal..

The highest court was the court, in which the king himself participated with brahmanas and “experienced advisers” or deputies. Yu his judicial panel of three Brahmins, appointing e of us king.

In all administrative units, a judicial panel of three judicial ranks was appointed. Special courts considered And committed criminal offenses. Most cases are With was supervised by communal caste courts, which have survived to this day I'm up to date.

Army : She played huge role in the robbery of other peoples, the seizure of foreign lands and the increase in the wealth of the king, who himself led the advancing army.

The army was staffed from hereditary warriors, mercenaries And kovs and persons supplied by traders, dependent allies, vass A lami. The army was caste-based. She acted as a defender of public order and state security with ness.

1. Ancient China.

Ancient Chinese society was distinguished by the early development of fairy tales O long-distance relationships.In the history of Ancient China there are periods called kings T warring dynasties:

Shang (Yin) period (XV III XI centuries. BC.),

Zhou period (X I I 221 BC),

Qin period (221 BC 207 BC),

Han period (206 BC 220 AD).

These periods differ from each other by different levels of social And cultural, economic and political development, various st e due to the decomposition of the tribal system and the growth of land ownership, commodity-money relations, they are accompanied were long-term, incessant wars between various parts China, which weakened the country and led to the realization of the need to unite the peoples of China and create peace for them.The Confucian religion, which became in the 5th century, also called for the unification of the country. BC. watered And ical ideology of a united united empire of China.

Thus, in the last centuries BC. In China, there is a confrontation between two trends in the development of society: developing Yu existing large private ownership of land andnon-economic form of exploitation of peasant tenants, hired workers And cows, slaves, on the other hand, a wide layer of people was forming T of the peasantry, directly subordinate to the state. This is b s there are two possible ways of development of the country. But she chooses the second path, the carrier of which is the kingdom of Qin, which created a single centralized state. Refo also contributed to this R we are the philosopher and statesman Shang-Yang, who was authorized e for the free purchase and sale of land, a land tax was introduced, a clear administrative and territorial division was carried out, blood feud was prohibited, food units were introduced And nal measures and weights, etc.

State orders, foundations of public state T military structure of Qin China were then transferred to the Han Empire, which actually survived into the imperial A tor China before the bourgeois revolution of 1911 1913.

The main features of the social system of Ancient China:Ancient China Shan-Yin (XV III XII centuries BC) and early Zhou periods (XI-X centuries BC) were characterized by a transition from communal-tribal to class society and the presence of three social layers:

1. ruling family aristocracy with the supreme pr A ruler, with his relatives and associates, local rulers I us, with their relatives and associates, heads of clan and larger family areas e dineniya;
2. free peasants-communities;
3. powerless slaves.

The land belonged to the community.Community land use was organized according to the system"well fields".All lands were divided into two categories: “public” fields and “private” fields.The “public” field was cultivated jointly by the entire community, the entire harvest went to the head of the community and then to the king. “Private” fields were for the individual use of the family, and the entire harvest was at its disposal. What happens next is once the location of communal ownership of land and class formation(by the 3rd century BC). The main exploited mass consisted of h landed or land-poor free peasants, tenant-sharecroppers, slaves, serfs, hired workers, crafts n nicknames.

The exploiting class was also heterogeneous. It consisted of titled nobility, ranked officials and nobles T ny large landowners and merchants.

These classes occupied different position in China.

Political system:The despotic features of government developed back in Yin China, where the throne was practiced O heritage and legacy of office.

In early Zhou China, the power and personality of the wang were finally sacralized. He bears the title of "son of heaven", "father and mother" of St. O their subjects. Wang- high priest The control center was two O retz vana. Standing close to the wang were the tsai rulerpalace artisans, temples of the ancestors of the wang; shanfu, serving li h New needs of Wang, Zhouhouspecific managers.

In Qin-Han China, centralized empires of the Eastern despotism type, headed by a monarch (emperat O rum). The completeness of military law was concentrated in his hands. A body, executive and judicial powers, the appointment of all senior officials of the central and local government and ratov.

The central apparatus of the empire included a number of departments: finance O military, military, judicial, rituals, agriculture, department and m Emperor's palace, palace guards. Each department performed its functions within the limits of its powers and responsibilities. Oh stay.

For example, the department of rituals, led by the supreme priest e centrally, served social cohesion, educating the population in the spirit of recognition of the inviolability and sanctity of existing orders. Ve R the divine priest controlled the activities created in 124 BC. an imperial academy that trains high-ranking officials. Thus, he acted as the “Minister of Images” a niya".

Local control:State forms of exploitation of the tax-paying peasantry required a clear administrative-territorial division. Back in the middle of the 9th century. BC. having appeared And The first elements of territorial division were in place. Environments were introduced at hectares, which are tax and military units.

Qin-Han China was divided into regions or districts, those into counties, counties into volosts, and volosts into communities lower administrators And strata-territorial units. At the head of the regions were governors, counties and volosts officials, city government Council of Elders, communities - the headman ("fathers of the old y tire").

Military-bureaucratic control extended to the organizational A us local government. Mutual surveillance system n control and responsibility operated at all levels: from the rural community to senior officials. The censors were the eyes and ears a mi" of the emperor.

Army: She played a huge role in Ancient China, which e divided by frequent wars and peasant uprisings. Isto h nicknames report 14 armies at Van's disposal. The position of commander of an army group was inherited. The army was located in military settlements and camps, O Crimea was allocated land as an economic base. In a R The participants took men from 23 to 56 years old. They completed a one-year d cooking, were obliged to perform garrison service for a year and serve in the militia at their place of residence for a month a year.

To protect state borders without specifying terms of service and if the offending officials were targeted first, P nicks who have lost their freedom, hostages for debts, wandering traders V citizens and only last but not least free landowners. Gradually a standing army was formed, the number of which O swarm in 140 AD reached 20 thousand people and which from O was maintained at the expense of the treasury. The army was also entrusted with police functions.

Court: In the Qin Empire there were special courts e households and provincial courts, whose functions are not clearly defined e were related primarily to criminal offenses. Except t O Therefore, all administrative bodies had judicial power. The lowest court was considered the district administration, the second instance n tion the governor of the province, as the last resort the emperor himself.

Name an outstanding monument of legislation of Ancient Babylon.

Mancipation in Ancient Rome

Vaisyas, the gods of the Brahmins, are subject to the laws of Manu.

The principle of talion, when imposing punishment in the Ancient World, meant

HISTORY OF THE STATE AND LAW OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES

PART 1

1. Killing a cat in Ancient Egypt:

A. It was not considered a criminal act.

B. Considered a crime of a religious nature.

C. Causing property damage.

D. Minor misdemeanor.

2 The first set of laws, as a record of customary law, were made in Athens:

A. Pericles.

V. Dragon.

S. Cleisthenes.

D. Sopon.

A. The principle of compensation for damage (retribution).

B. Intimidation.

C. Re-education.

D. Appeal to the gods for mercy.

4. Which empire was most famous in ancient India?

A. Mauryan Empire.

B. Justinian's Empire.

C. Empire of Alexander the Great.

D. Empire of Hammurabi.

5. “Which of the laws of the Ancient world gave the right to divorce if the wife does not give birth to children in the eighth year; if she gives birth to stillborn children - on the tenth, if she gives birth only to girls - on the eleventh, if she is obstinate - immediately. "

A. Laws of the XII tables.

B. Guy's Constitution

C. Laws of Manu.

D. Laws of Hammurabi.

6. What is the subject of the discipline “History of State and Law of Foreign Countries”?

A. Study of the state and law of individual countries in the process of their emergence and

development in chronological order in a specific manner

historical setting.

B. The study of state and law within the framework of an abstract historical process

without taking into account historical accidents.

C. Study of the patterns of development of society as a whole.

D. Study of legal norms governing certain aspects of public life.

A. Corporal punishment.

B. Death penalty.

S. A fine of two and a half hundred (shares).

D. A fine of one hundred (shares)

A. A series of mandatory formal actions accompanying the emergence of law

ownership of a thing.

B. Procedure for disposing of the contract.

C. Form of agreement.

D. Form for filing a claim in court.

9. According to the Laws of Manu, a woman can divorce a marriage if:

A. In case of a long unknown absence.

B. In case of infidelity of the husband.

C. She does not have such a right.

D. In case of inability to support a family.

10. What was the polis form of the state?

A. A specific type of ancient slave state.

IN. State structure Empire of Alexander the Great.

C. A type of slave state.

D. A type of slave state in the Ancient East.

11. What does the official name of the Roman state, res puolica, mean?

A. Common cause (public cause) - the supremacy of the power of the people.

B. Belonging to the authority of the master.

C. Power belongs to slave owners.

D. Power belongs to the patricians.

A. The laws of King Hammurabi.

V. “Book of Laws.”

C. Laws of Manu.

D. Laws of the XII tables.

13. Lasidonosor brought the marriage gift (deposit) to his father-in-law’s house and gave the ransom. A month later, the girl’s father announced that he would not marry his daughter to Lasidonosor. and he will keep the deposit and redemption payment for himself. How should a property dispute be resolved according to the Laws of King Hammurabi?

A. The girl’s father must return everything triple the amount.

Q. The girl’s father must return everything double.

C. The girl’s father must return the deposit and purchase price.

D. The girl's father must return the ransom payment, but can keep the deposit for himself.

A. A fine of two and a half hundred (shares).

B. Death penalty,

C. Corporal punishment.

D. A fine of one hundred (shares).

15. According to the laws of the XII tables in Ancient Rome, a judge caught taking a bribe was sentenced to punishment in the form of:

A. A monetary fine in the amount of 12 times the cost of the claim.

B. Death penalty.

C. Corporal punishment and a monetary fine in the amount of the cost of the claim.

D. Removal from office.

16. While protecting a woman from an attack, the guardian of the sacrificial gifts killed the attacker. What punishment should he be subjected to according to the laws of Manu?

A. Such a person must pay a fine to the king.

B. Such a person does not commit a sin and is not subject to punishment.

C. Such a person commits a grave sin and must be severely punished with

imprisonment.

D. Such person shall be put to death.

17. What new forms of regulation of social relations are used by emerging states?

A. Morality.

B. Religion.

C. Law. .

D. Traditions.

18. The moneylender of Tarba entered into an agreement with 12-year-old Sagga to sell him an expensive bracelet given to her by her parents. Saggi's parents demanded the return of the bracelet, but the moneylender refused. How is this dispute resolved according to the laws of Manu?

A. Parents do not have the right to demand back the sold item.

Q. Parents have the right to redeem the bracelet.

C. Parents can demand the return of the bracelet only if Sagta

entered into an agreement without their consent.

D. The contract is invalid and the bracelet must be returned.

19. The builder, having built the house, sold it. But the house was not built firmly and soon collapsed and crushed the owner to death. What punishment do the Laws of Hammurabi provide for?

A. The builder must restore the house at his own expense.

B. He must make restitution and be subjected to corporal punishment.

C. The builder must be killed.

D. He must rebuild the house at his own expense and pay for the damage.

Until very recently, Indian historians and archaeologists identified the so-called dark age - from the end of the Harappan culture to the beginning of the historical period (in Indian terminology), i.e., before the appearance of the first written sources. This classification, however, was caused by poor knowledge of the so-called post-Harappan era. Nowadays, dark age scholars are increasingly inclined to believe that no “dark age” actually existed. New research by Indian archaeologists is helping to fill the significant gap between the fall of Harappa and the period marked by the appearance of written sources. Excavations at Kathiyawar indicate the development of local post-Harappan cultures over a very long period after the Fall of the major centers of Harappan civilization.

Of particular interest is the study of multi-layer settlements in the Ganges Valley. In 1950-1952 During the excavations of Hastinapur, B. Lal uncovered layers from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. up to the Middle Ages. In the lower layer of the settlement, instead of the expected Harappan pottery, fragments of yellow, poorly fired pottery were found, which can be attributed to the “copper hoard” culture. Above it lay a layer of the “gray painted pottery” culture (the second layer of Hastinapur).

Gray painted ceramics here are represented by thin, well-fired vessels, mainly gray, which are made on a potter's wheel. The metal is mainly copper. A small number of iron objects appear only in the very top part of the layer. Of the animal bones, the bones of a horse, pig, and sheep were discovered; from cereals - rice grains. Finds of a significant number of horse bones indicate its great importance in the economy of these tribes. The remains of dwellings made of mud brick and reeds coated with clay were uncovered. Terracotta figurines depict mainly animals. A similar complex of the “gray painted pottery” culture is found in other settlements (Ahichchhatra, Kurukshetra, Mathura).

Gray painted ceramics, according to B. Lal, are also similar to ceramics from Iran (Shah Tepe), from the area south of Lake Urmia and from Sistan. The study of the culture of “gray painted ceramics” (mainly its early stages dating back to the 12th-11th centuries BC) allows us to restore some features of the material culture of the Indo-Aryan tribes of the era of the Rigveda and the main stages of its development on Indian soil. The Vedic Aryans appear before us as settled farmers and cattle breeders who know Potter's wheel, and from metals - copper, which is consistent with the materials of the Rig Veda.

The third period at Hastinapura (early 6th-early 3rd century BC) is characterized by northern black burnished pottery, which apparently developed from the gray painted pottery that preceded it. Metal objects - mostly iron.

Data on the connection between gray painted pottery and northern black polished pottery, widespread over a large territory of India, are of great interest. They suggest that the later phases of the “gray painted pottery” culture are not alien to local Indian traditions. Its creators, although they were associated with the Aryan tribes that came here, in the era under consideration (IX-VIII centuries BC) appear before us as Indian tribes themselves. The newcomers merged with the local population and created a single culture that can be traced across a large part of the Northern Territory.

India. The subsequent cultural layers of Hastinapur already date back to the era when, in addition to material monuments, written materials and dated coins (IV-III centuries BC) came to the aid of researchers.

Fragment of “gray painted ceramics”

During this period, new centers of Indian culture emerged in the Ganges Valley, new states were created, and economic, trade and cultural ties between various regions of the country were strengthened. The center of Indian culture and statehood moves from the banks of the Indus to the Ganges valley.

The study of post-Harappan cultures in Balochistan also suggests that Balochistan did not experience a “dark age” period. According to D. Gordon, southern Balochistan and Makran after the Harappan civilization were inhabited by peoples who left cultures of “funeral pyramids” and Londo-type pottery. The creators of these cultures already knew iron. Great importance They had a horse on their farm. The last phases of these still poorly studied cultures date back to the mid-7th to mid-5th centuries. BC e.

Our evidence about the life and culture of the Vedic Aryan tribes is based not only on archaeological materials, but also on data contained in the collections of sacred hymns of the ancient Indians - the Vedas.

Some data on the social structure and economic structure of the Vedic tribes

The compilation of the Rigveda, the earliest of the monuments of Vedic literature, into a single collection currently dates back to approximately the 10th-9th centuries. BC e.; although the information that the Vedic tradition has preserved for us may also relate to previous periods in the history of the Indo-Aryan tribes.

It is the combination of both types of materials - archaeological and documentary - that makes it possible to more clearly present the main features and features of the economic structure, way of life, material culture, religious ideas of the Aryan tribes in the so-called Vedic era (this term can conditionally be called the period from the appearance of the Indo-Aryans in India tribes before the formation of the first states in the Ganges Valley. Researchers divide this significant period into the Early Vedic and Late Vedic periods).

As mentioned above, the Vedic Aryans of the era of the Rig Veda appear before us as settled farmers and cattle breeders. This is confirmed not only in archaeological, but also in documentary material. Although the population was not nomadic, important, and perhaps the main species economic activity Cattle breeding remained, not agriculture. The craft was inferior in its technical level to the craft of the creators of the Harappan culture. The Aryan tribes during this period, apparently, did not yet know writing. Their religion also differed significantly from the religion of the Harappan culture. In it, the cult of female deities played a much smaller role; ideas characteristic of agricultural cults, etc., were weakly manifested.

In the first centuries of the 1st millennium BC. e. Intensified settlement of Aryans along the Ganges Valley begins. Aryan tribes settled down the Ganges and Jumna, gradually strengthening their positions. The language, religion, economic and social structure of the Aryan tribes spread in the Ganges valley.

It was previously common to assert that the technique of iron mining and processing was brought to India by the Aryans. The basis for this was the interpretation of the term “ayas” found in the Rig Veda as “iron”. Currently, most researchers believe that the ancient Indians used the word “ayas” to call metal in general; the indisputable oldest mention of iron occurs much later - in the later hymns of the Atharva Veda. The Aryan tribes of the Rigveda era knew only copper. Already in the Ganges valley they switched to iron. Iron metallurgy thus arose independently in India in the 1st millennium BC. e.

The transition to iron was an important factor in the successful development of the Ganges Valley and further progress in the sphere of material production: more and more territories were conquered from the swamps and jungles; The work of the farmer became more productive.

If the main grain crop during the Rigveda period was barley, then in the late Vedic period rice, sugar cane, and cotton crops spread in the Ganges valley. Climatic conditions and new agricultural technology made it possible to grow two crops a year. Plow farming developed widely. Bulls were used as draft animals. Artificial irrigation developed, but the existence of large irrigation structures during this period has not yet been established.

Important, although from now on main role, pastoralism, especially cattle breeding, continued to play a role. Horse breeding gradually developed, especially in the north-west of the country. Horses were used mainly in military affairs.

The ancient Aryan culture, as far as we can judge, was inferior to the Harappan culture in terms of its development. As archaeological data show, cities in the central part of the Ganges Valley appeared only in the 1st millennium BC. e. and by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. even the most famous of them (for example, the capital of the heroes of the Mahabharata, Hastinapur) apparently could not compare with Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.

Cities were the main centers of craft production. The presence of war chariots on which the nobility fought implied a fairly high level of metalworking skill. Among the weapons mentioned are spears, battle axes, swords, armor, helmets, bows and arrows. There was already, apparently, some division of labor; weavers wove cotton, wool, silk and linen fabrics. Fabrics were dyed in various colors. Carpenters knew how to make multi-oared ships.

" - Dwellings and city fortifications in the Ganges Valley, in contrast to the Harappan culture, were built at that time mainly from wood, and this contributed to the development of wooden architecture and artistic woodworking.

In connection with the intensification of exchange between tribes, professional merchants appeared. The unit of exchange and measure of value was livestock (cows) or the most common jewelry. Only by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. coins appear, and they are still very primitive, in the form of small silver bars with a stamp. Trade was carried out along land routes and rivers. There is reason to believe that there was international trade- land and sea.

The growth of productive forces and labor productivity contributed to the steadily continuing process of property and social stratification of the Aryan tribes.

Arable land was transferred from communal ownership to individual families, with the tribal elite seizing the best and largest plots. In those conditions, it was possible to exploit, first of all, people from a foreign tribe. Prisoners of war were no longer exterminated, but turned into slaves.

The Rigveda mentions dozens and hundreds of slaves. Owning slaves became one of the main indicators of wealth and high social status.

The main term for a slave was "dasa"; as we have already mentioned, in the Vedas non-Aryan tribes were also called this way. This indicates that the first slaves of the Aryans were prisoners of war from tribes alien to them. Then this term began to denote slaves - prisoners of war from the Aryans, and finally, slaves in general.

Having arisen, slavery steadily* developed; The enslavement of impoverished fellow tribesmen by the rich and noble intensified. Debt slavery appeared.

Slaves were the complete property of the owner. Their situation differed little from that of livestock. They were sold, given away, transferred as a dowry along with other property. According to legend, they were bought to be sacrificed to the gods. The children of a slave were considered the property of the mother's master. The words “slave” and “son of a slave” were used as swear words.

Slaves fell as spoils of war mainly into the hands of the nobility; this “helped strengthen its position. The nobility, having seized the tribal government bodies, gets the opportunity to dispose of common tribal property. The military leader of the tribe (raja), relying on the tribal nobility, now has the opportunity to impose a decision he likes on the tribal assembly or completely do without its consent. Gradually, the position of the raja becomes hereditary, he turns into a king. The highest positions in the state administration - royal priest, tax and tribute collector, treasurer, etc., as well as command posts in the army - become the privilege of the slave-owning nobility.

But for a long time, new class relations were closely intertwined with primitive communal ones, and the state used tribal institutions - assemblies of the nobility, popular assemblies, etc., which gradually adapted to new social conditions.

During the period under review, the division of all once equal, free members of society into four groups, unequal in their social status, rights and responsibilities, was determined: brahmins, kshatriyas, vaishyas and sudras. Priests in ancient India were called brahmanas, warriors - kshatriyas, all other community members, and later the overwhelming majority of the urban population - vaishyas.

These social groups of a class nature were called varnas by the Indians. The origin of varnas dates back to the period of decomposition of the primitive communal system, when there was a division into the nobility and ordinary community members.

Initially, persons performing religious duties, as well as those involved in military affairs, did not have special privileges. But gradually these occupations become hereditary, and their bearers occupy a privileged position and stand out from the general mass of ordinary community members. They begin to dominate the tribal militia, assign to themselves the preferential right to occupy positions in government bodies, the best part common tribal property, military spoils, etc. Their dominance also extends to the area of ​​ideology.

Then unequal members of the community appear - the Shudras. These were *members of small tribes who united with stronger ones on unequal conditions, or members of tribes defeated in wars, as well as outcasts from others. They were not allowed to decide public affairs and did not participate

in the performance of tribal worship; they did not undergo the initiation rite - “second birth”, to which only members of the three “highest” - varnas, called “twice-born”, in contrast to the “once-born” - sudras, were entitled. The basis of this ritual, performed at the age of 8-10 years, was the placing of a sacred cord and belt on the initiate, accompanied by the reading of a hymn to the sun.

With the emergence of the state, the inequality of these social groups, their rights and responsibilities both in relation to the state and each other is legitimized.<к другу.

The “highest” - brahmanas and kshatriyas - try to isolate themselves, not to allow vaishyas and sudras into their midst, and also to prevent the mixing of vaishyas with sudras. This is how varnas are formed - class social groups of the city.

The ancient Indian epic contains memories of the times when women occupied an equal position with men in society, were respected, participated in public affairs, had the right to choose their own husband, remarry, and even have several husbands.

By the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. In the states of the Ganges Valley, the patriarchal family was already firmly established. The word tati" - husband also meant "lord", "lord". In the families of kings and nobility, polygamy was common, but marriages among the common people were usually monogamous. Women have already lost the right to decide issues in the people's assembly. In the families of priests and military nobility, they could no longer manage family property and were removed from performing priestly functions. The husband could demand and easily obtain a divorce; the obligation to observe marital fidelity did not exist for him. It was practically impossible for a wife to dissolve a marriage at will, and her infidelity to her husband was severely punished. According to the religious beliefs of that time, the wife, even in the next world, remained in a position subordinate to her husband.

The head of the family had sole control over the family property and the products of the labor of its individual members and practically had the right of life and death over them. In the lower strata of society, the position of women was higher, and the remnants of former equality had a stronger impact.

Due to the leading role of the states of the upper Ganges valley in the political and cultural life of India during the period under review, the customs and religious views that developed here, the sacred texts and the language in which they were created (Sanskrit), gradually spread throughout the country.

Ancient Indian slave states

In the VII-VI centuries. BC e. In the Ganges valley, early slave states had already formed (Magadha, Kashi, Koshala, Anga, Kuru, Panchala, etc.), which waged a fierce struggle among themselves. The main contenders for political hegemony were Koshala (in the present-day state of Uttar Pradesh) and Magadha (in the center of the modern state of Bihar). The struggle between them ended in the 4th century. BC e. the victory of Magadha and the political unification of the entire Ganges valley, and then almost all of eastern and part of western and central India under the rule of rulers from the Nanda dynasty.

Significant changes in the social system were expressed in the religious struggle, which covered the broadest strata of the people. The religions that emerged at this time - Buddhism and Jainism - spread over the centuries throughout India from the north to the extreme south.

During this period, a well-known cultural community emerged between the main ethnic groups inhabiting northern India.

According to some European and Indian scientists (for example, S.K. Chatterjee), the Vedas and the Vedic religion, as well as the Upanishads, are not the creation of exclusively Aryans. By the time the Vedic culture was formed, the merging (or, in any case, the rapprochement) of a significant part of the peoples of India had reached such a degree that the influence of the Dravidians and other ancient inhabitants of the country was very noticeable in the Vedas and Vedic literature (both in language and in content). The doctrine of karma and transmigration of souls, the practice of yoga, the idea of ​​deities (such as Shiva, Vishnu, etc.), many myths in the Puranas and epics are pre-Aryan in nature. The same can be said about marriage rites and a number of other Hindu customs. Clothing, common throughout India, the cultivation of rice and many fruit trees (for example, tamarind and coconut palms) were also borrowed, according to Chatterjee, from the pre-Aryan population of India.

On the other hand, the Dravidian peoples of India borrowed a lot from the Aryans; The Dravidian languages ​​of India were heavily influenced by Sanskrit. In the first centuries BC and at the beginning of our era, this connection between the peoples inhabiting different regions of the country was already significant, and all religious movements born in northern India spread all the way to the extreme south.

In 326 BC. e. The troops of Alexander the Great invaded northwestern India. He failed to penetrate into the interior of the country, and the principalities of Punjab he conquered remained dependent on the Greeks for a very short time. Alexander's companions left quite a lot of evidence that allows us to judge various aspects of the social and state system of ancient India. Only from this time it is possible to establish the exact chronology of the events of Indian history, because all the monuments of Indian literature proper are not dated and do not contain the dates of the events described.

In 322 BC. e. The Nanda dynasty in Magadha was overthrown by Chandra Gupta, who founded a new dynasty - the Mauryas (322-185). Chandra Gupta united all of northern India, displacing the Greeks from Punjab, and created a large state, annexing part of southern India. The Mauryan Empire reached its greatest power under Ashoka (272-232), who united a significant part of India under his rule. Buddhism became very widespread during this period.

India at the time of Ashoka

Emperor Ashoka left edicts in different places of his empire, carved on rocks and columns and written in Prakrit - the ancient local spoken languages. These edicts allow us to draw some conclusions about the nature of social relations of that time.

The Mauryan Empire was the first major slave state in Indian history, as evidenced by written sources. True, Megasthenes, who was the Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya, denied the existence of slaves in India, however, numerous references to slaves in the Indian epic and recent research by both foreign and Soviet scientists suggest that we are not talking about the absence at this time of slavery, but about the serious differences between Indian slavery and ancient slavery. Slavery in India did not have such developed forms as in Greece and Rome. It was often patriarchal in nature, and the number of slaves was relatively small.

Some Indian scientists suggest that the peculiar development of slavery in India is explained by the early emergence of a caste system in India, which made it possible for representatives of the “higher” castes to exploit the “lower” castes without directly enslaving them.

Under Ashoka's successors, the Maurya Empire began to disintegrate. The most significant state in India at the turn of our era was Andhra, located in the northern part of the Deccan and stretching from the Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east. Its population included Indo-Aryan and Dravidian peoples. South of Andhra, in an area that was not part of the Maurya Empire even at its peak, there were three ancient Dravidian states - Pandya, Chola and Chera, inhabited mainly by Tamils ​​and Malayali.

From the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. to the 3rd century n. e. northern India was subject to repeated invasions by the Greeks, who established themselves in Bactria, and then by the Parthians and Sakas. One of the Saka peoples ruled in the northern regions of India for a long time (I-II centuries AD). The Saka ruler from the Kushan family, Kanishka (78-123), is especially famous. Kanishka's empire included, in addition to northwestern and northern India, the territory of modern Afghanistan, most of Central Asia (Khorezm) and Bactria. The eastern border of the Kushan state in India is not precisely known, but coins of Kanishka have been found in Bihar and Bengal. Many Kanishka coins were discovered during excavations in ancient Khorezm, indicating strong economic ties between India and this region. The capital of Kanishka's empire was the city of Purushapur (modern Peshawar). The year of Kanishka's accession began to be considered the beginning of one of the Indian chronology systems, widespread in medieval India and known as the “Shaka era”.

The states of southern India during this period had fairly regular trade relations with the states of the Mediterranean - with Egypt, Greece and Rome. It is known that many items of Indian origin were borrowed by the Greeks and Romans from the population of southern India and retained their Dravidian names in a slightly modified form (for example, rice, which was called oryza in Greek, and arisi in Tamil). Numerous Roman coins have been found in the states of southern India; Some evidence suggests that the rulers of the Tamil states hired Roman soldiers as their personal guard.

At the beginning of the 4th century. n. e. a new rise of Magadha is taking place. Its ruler Chandragupta (320-330) united the main regions of Gangetic India under his rule and founded the Gupta dynasty. The Gupta Empire covered the whole of northern India. Its eastern border was the Ganges delta, and its western border extended from the eastern tributaries of the Indus to the Kathiyawar Peninsula in the southwest. Samudragupta (approximately 330-380) made a victorious campaign in the Deccan, but could not annex southern India. The main sources that allow us to study the history of this period are the dedicatory inscriptions of the Gupta rulers and the notes of the Chinese pilgrim Fa Xian, who visited India at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th century. n. e. Some historians believe that it was during the Gupta period that feudal relations were formed in India, but the issue of socio-economic relations during this period is extremely complex and requires further development. The significant development of the social division of labor during this period is evidenced by the rise of the caste system.

South India in the VIII-X centuries.

In the middle of the 5th century. Northern India was invaded by the Huns (Hephthalites), who struck the Guptas, but they themselves could not gain a foothold here in the middle of the 6th century. were expelled. Northern India was in a state of political fragmentation until the beginning of the 7th century.

The culture of ancient India had a great influence on neighboring peoples. Monuments of Indian material culture are found in Central Asia, Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Indochina and even in southern China, i.e., everywhere where there were more or less significant Indian colonies. The influence of India affected religion, writing, art, architecture and many customs of the peoples of these countries.

See “Introductory part”, section “Caste system”.