The army of ancient Rome. The most powerful armies of the ancient world

This issue is made on the basis of the three-volume “Military History” by Razin and the book “On Seven Hills” by M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdalsky. The issue is not a special historical study and is intended to help those who are engaged in the production of military miniatures.

Brief historical background

Ancient Rome is a state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Britain. Roman soldiers were famous throughout the world for their iron discipline (but it was not always iron) and brilliant victories. The Roman commanders went from victory to victory (there were also severe defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean found themselves under the weight of the soldier’s boot.

The Roman army at different times had different numbers, number of legions, and different formations. With the improvement of military art, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.

In Rome there was universal conscription. Young men began to serve in the army from the age of 17 and up to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempt from service. Service life also changed over time.

At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in the light infantry (weapons were cheap and purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into categories. This was done under Servius Tullius. The 1st category included people who owned property valued at no less than 100,000 copper asses, the 2nd - at least 75,000 asses, the 3rd - 50,000 asses, the 4th - 25,000 asses, the 5th -mu – 11,500 asses. All poor people were included in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only their offspring ( proles). Each property category fielded a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 centuries of heavy infantry, which were the main fighting force, and 18 centuries of horsemen; only 98 centuries; 2nd – 22; 3rd – 20; 4th – 22; 5th - 30 lightly armed centuries and 6th category - 1 century, a total of 193 centuries. Lightly armed warriors were used as baggage servants. Thanks to the division into ranks, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed infantry and horsemen. Proletarians and slaves did not serve because they were not trusted.

Over time, the state took upon itself not only the maintenance of the warrior, but also withheld from his salary for food, weapons and equipment.

After a severe defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. Salaries were sharply increased and proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.

Continuous wars required many soldiers, changes in weapons, construction, and training. The army became mercenary. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. This is what happened when Lucius Cornellius Sulla came to power (1st century BC).

Organization of the Roman army

After the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy came under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some peoples more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of “divide and conquer.”

And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:

a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry assigned to them;

b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to the Italians who joined the legion);

c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.

The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 horsemen, not counting 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion's combat ranks.

Consul Marcus Claudius changed the structure of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.

The legion was divided into maniples (Latin for a handful), centuries (hundreds) and decurii (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, and squads.

Light infantry - velites (literally - fast, mobile) walked ahead of the legion in a loose formation and started a battle. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and flanks of the legion. There were 1200 people in total.

Hastati (from the Latin “gast” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles (first) – 120 people in the manipula. Second line. Triarii (third) – 60 people in a maniple. Third line. The triarii were the most experienced and tested fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: “It has come to the triarii.”

Each maniple had two centuries. In the century of hastati or principles there were 60 people, and in the century of triarii there were 30 people.

The legion was assigned 300 horsemen, making up 10 turmas. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.

At the very beginning of the use of the manipular order, the legion went into battle in three lines, and if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, this resulted in a gap in the battle line, the maniple from the second line hurried to close the gap, and the maniple from the second line took the place of the maniple from the third line . During the battle with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.

Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve that decided the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion would die. Therefore, over time, the Romans switched to the cohort formation of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and, with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, was a legion in miniature.

Command structure of the Roman army

In tsarist times, the commander was the king. During the Republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded alternately. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the chief of the cavalry was subordinate, as opposed to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with separate parts of the army.

Individual legions were commanded by tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving way to the second pair, etc. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each century was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right of a soldier for misconduct. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod; this weapon was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus talked about one centurion, whom the entire army knew by the nickname: “Pass over the other!” After the reform of Marius, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the triarii gained great influence. They were invited to a military council.

As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, kettledrums, trumpets, and horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbar, on which hung a panel of one-color material. The maniples, and after the reform of Maria the cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar there was an image of an animal (wolf, elephant, horse, boar...). If a unit accomplished a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has survived to this day.

The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver or bronze eagle. Under the emperors it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In difficult times, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies in order to encourage the soldiers to return it back and disperse the enemies.

The first thing the soldiers were taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. Standard bearers were chosen from strong and experienced soldiers and were held in high esteem and respect.

According to the description of Titus Livy, the banners were a square panel laced to a horizontal crossbar mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.

Until the Allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects chosen from among Roman citizens.

Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the quartermaster service was the quaestor, who was in charge of forage and food for the army. He ensured that everything needed was delivered. In addition, each century had its own foragers. A special official, like a captain in a modern army, distributed food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, accountants, cashiers who issued salaries to soldiers, priests-fortunetellers, military police officials, spies, and trumpeter-signal players.

All signals were sent through a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. When changing the guard, a futsin trumpet was blown. The cavalry used a special long pipe, curved at the end. The signal to assemble the troops for a general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander’s tent.

Training in the Roman Army

The training of the soldiers of the Roman manipular legion primarily consisted of teaching the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill gaps in the battle line at the moment of collision with the enemy, and to rush to merge into the general mass. Performing these maneuvers required more complex training than that of a warrior fighting in a phalanx.

The training also consisted of the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.

The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver, required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Marius, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced a new training system in the Roman army, which was reminiscent of the system of training gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained (trained) soldiers could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack a huge mass of the enemy from the rear, feeling only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like this. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting light infantry, and from 300 to 900 horsemen.

Fig. 3 – Cohort battle formation.

Discipline

The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely at the mercy of the commander.

The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as was failure to comply with orders. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquatus, during reconnaissance without orders from the commander-in-chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in camp with delight. However, the consul sentenced him to death. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.

Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bundles of rods (fasciae, fascines). In wartime, an ax was inserted into them. A symbol of the consul's power over his men. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then his head was cut off with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem in Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flogged and then executed.

If a soldier fell asleep at his post, he was put on trial and then beaten to death with stones and sticks. For minor offenses they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced in salary, deprived of citizenship, or sold into slavery.

But there were also rewards. They could promote them in rank, increase their salary, reward them with land or money, exempt them from camp work, and award them with insignia: silver and gold chains, bracelets. The award ceremony was carried out by the commander himself.

The usual awards were medals (faleres) with the image of a god or commander. The highest insignia were wreaths (crowns). Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen - in battle. A crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden bows of ships - to the soldier who was the first to step onto the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege of a city or fortress or liberated it. But the highest reward - triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, in which at least 5,000 enemies had to be killed.

The triumphant rode on a gilded chariot wearing a purple robe embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was drawn by four snow-white horses. In front of the chariot they carried spoils of war and led prisoners. The triumphant man was followed by relatives and friends, songwriters, and soldiers. Triumphant songs were sung. Every now and then there were shouts of “Io!” and “Triumph!” (“Io!” corresponds to our “Hurray!”). The slave standing behind the triumphant on the chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and so that he should not become arrogant.

For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, who were in love with him, followed him, making fun of him and laughing at his baldness.

Roman camp

The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army, as they said, carried the fortress with it. As soon as a halt was made, construction of the camp immediately began. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was abandoned unfinished. Even if it was defeated only for a short time, it differed from a one-day one with more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army remained in camp for the winter. This type of camp was called a winter camp; instead of tents, houses and barracks were built. By the way, cities such as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose on the site of some Roman camps. Cologne (the Roman colony of Agripinna), Vienna (Vindobona) grew out of the Roman camps... Cities ending in “...chester” or “...castrum” arose on the site of the Roman camps. “Castrum” - camp.

The camp site was chosen on the southern dry slope of the hill. Nearby there should have been water and pasture for the transport's livestock, as well as fuel.

The camp was a square, later a rectangle, the length of which was one third longer than the width. First of all, the location of the praetorium was planned. This is a square area, the side of which is 50 meters. The commander's tents, altars, and a platform for addressing the commander's soldiers were placed here; The trial and the gathering of troops took place here. To the right was the tent of the quaestor, to the left - the legates. There were tribune tents on both sides. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide ran through the entire camp; the main street was crossed by another, 12 meters wide. At the ends of the streets there were gates and towers. There were ballistas and catapults on them (one and the same throwing weapon, got its name from the projectile thrown, ballista, metal cannonballs, catapult - arrows). Legionnaires' tents stood in regular rows on the sides. From the camp the troops could set out on a campaign without fuss or disorder. Each century occupied ten tents, and each maniple occupied twenty. The tents had a plank frame, a gable plank roof, and were covered with leather or rough linen. Tent area from 2.5 to 7 square meters. m. A decuria lived in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the Praetorian Guard and cavalry were large. The camp was surrounded by a palisade, a wide and deep ditch and a rampart 6 meters high. There was a distance of 50 meters between the ramparts and the legionnaires' tents. This was done so that the enemy could not set fire to the tents. In front of the camp, an obstacle course was set up consisting of several countervailing lines and barriers made of sharpened stakes, wolf pits, trees with sharpened branches and intertwined, forming an almost impassable obstacle.

Leggings have been worn by Roman legionnaires since ancient times. They were abolished under the emperors. But the centurions continued to wear them. The leggings had the color of the metal from which they were made, and were sometimes painted.

In the time of Mary the banners were silver, in the times of the empire they were gold. The panels were multi-colored: white, blue, red, purple.

Rice. 7 – Weapons.

A cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than an infantry sword. The swords were double-edged, the handles were made of bone, wood, and metal.

A pilum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and shaft. Serrated tip. The shaft is wooden. The middle part of the spear is wrapped tightly turn to turn with cord. One or two tassels were made at the end of the cord. The tip of the spear and the shaft were made of soft forged iron, before the iron was made of bronze. The pilum was thrown at the enemy's shields. The spear that dug into the shield pulled it to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to throw the shield, since the spear weighed 4-5 kg ​​and dragged along the ground, as the tip and rod were bent.

Rice. 8 – Scutums (shields).

Shields (scutums) acquired a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC e. Scutums were made from light, well-dried, tightly fitted aspen or poplar boards, covered with linen, and on top with cowhide. The edge of the shield was bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and the strips were placed in a cross across the center of the shield. In the center was a pointed plaque (umbon) - the top of the shield. The legionnaires kept a razor, money and other small things in it (it was removable). On the inside there was a belt loop and a metal bracket, the owner's name and the number of the century or cohort were written. The skin could be dyed: red or black. The hand was inserted into the belt loop and grasped by the bracket, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the hand.

The helmet in the center is earlier, the one on the left is later. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated with snakes on the sides, which at the top formed a place where feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration on the helmet was the crest. On the top of the head the Roman helmet had a ring into which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or lower back, like a modern helmet.

Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. The velites were dressed in tunics; later (after the war with the Gauls) all legionnaires also began to wear trousers. Some of the velites were armed with slings. The slingers had bags for stones hanging on their right side, over their left shoulder. Some velites may have had swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of clothing could be any color except purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or walk barefoot. Archers appeared in the Roman army after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus at Brundisium.

Fig 12 – Centurion.

The centurions had silver-plated helmets, did not have shields and carried the sword on the right side. They had greaves and, as a distinctive sign on the armor, on the chest they had an image of a grapevine rolled into a ring. During the times of manipular and cohort formation of legions, centurions were on the right flank of centuries, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and senior commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.

Animal skins served as saddles. The Romans did not know stirrups. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not shod. Therefore, the horses were very taken care of.

References

1. Military history. Razin, 1-2 t. t., Moscow, 1987

2. On seven hills (Essays on the culture of ancient Rome). M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal; Leningrad, 1960.

3. Hannibal. Titus Livy; Moscow, 1947.

4. Spartak. Raffaello Giovagnoli; Moscow, 1985.

5. Flags of the world. K.I. Ivanov; Moscow, 1985.

6. History of ancient Rome, under the general editorship of V.I. Kuzishchina; Moscow, 1981.

Publication:
Library of the Military Historical Commission - 44, 1989

Many civilizations have been born and died in world history, but this article discusses the most dangerous and prosperous ones and their ancient warriors. This is not the best side of humanity and history in particular. In those days this may have been the norm, but today it seems simply monstrous and unimaginable. You know many of the civilizations from this rating; films have been made about some of them in which everything is presented from the best side, but now you will find out how it really was. So, from bad to worst in human history, the most brutal ancient warriors and civilizations of the world.

10. Sparta

Sparta was quite different from other ancient Greek city-states. The word "Spartan" has come down to us to describe self-denial and simplicity. Spartan life was war. The children were more children of the state than of their parents. They were born soldiers, statesmen, strong and disciplined.

Despite their noble portrayal of the Spartans in the movie 300, they were a very cruel people. To put it into perspective: every Spartan man was a soldier. All other work was done by slaves; The Spartans were warriors and that's it. All their lives they fought to the point of physical exhaustion and finally retired at the age of 60. Death consigned the Spartan to oblivion. The only Spartans who were commemorated with tombstones were those who died in battle while winning. They and only they had to have graves in order to amaze future generations with heroism. The one who lost the shield was executed. According to Spartan logic, the warrior must return it or die trying.

9. Maori

Maori were the original inhabitants of New Zealand. They built a reputation for themselves by essentially eating all uninvited guests until the 18th century. Maori believed that by devouring the flesh of their enemies, they became stronger, absorbing their best qualities.

They practiced cannibalism during the war. In October 1809, a European ship carrying convicts was attacked by a large group of cannibal warriors in retaliation for the ill-treatment of the chief's son. Maori killed most of the 66 people on board. They sent the victims - both dead and alive - in boats back to the shore to be devoured. The few "lucky" survivors who were able to take cover were horrified to see the Maori devouring their comrades all night.

8. Vikings

The Vikings were North Germanic sea people who raided, traded, and settled, exploring, across large areas of Europe and Asia, as well as the North Atlantic islands, from the late 8th to mid-11th centuries. Notorious for terror and looting across Europe.

They were ferocious ancient warriors who never shied away from a fight. Their physical strength was supported by military skills, as well as the use of various types of weapons such as axes, swords and spears. Perhaps their religion can be called military. The Vikings firmly believed that all people have a purpose in this life, and they fought to the death. This was their goal. Each of them was a soldier and fully proved this on the battlefield, destroying everything in their path.

7. Apache Tribe

Known for their fearlessness in battle, the Apaches were like America's ninjas. They were not like the Native Americans themselves. With amazingly cunning skills, they were quite adept at using primitive weapons made of bone and stone. The Apaches could sneak up behind you and before you knew it, your throat had been cut. These were the greatest knife fighters the world has seen; They were pretty good with a tomahawk, and they were great at throwing axes. They terrorized the southwestern United States, and even the military had problems with them, scalping their victims. As fighters, the Apaches had great success. Today, their descendants teach special forces hand-to-hand combat.

6. Roman Empire

The Roman Empire included almost everything that can now be considered Western Europe. The empire dictated the way of life in the conquered countries. The main countries were conquered England/Wales (then known as Britain), Spain (Hispania), France (Gaul), Greece (Achaia), the Middle East - Judea and coastal North Africa. Yes, Rome was the greatest empire, but the horrors of that empire cannot be denied. Criminals, slaves, ancient warriors and others were forced to fight each other to the death in gladiatorial games. Everyone knows the greatest villains of Rome - Nero and Caligula. In 64 AD, the early Christians were the subject of terrible persecution. Some were torn to pieces by dogs, others burned alive like human torches. Before becoming an empire, Rome was a republic. The emergence of Rome is supposedly legendary and is associated with the she-wolf who suckled Rom and Remulus. Combined with an excellent military and administrative system, the Roman Empire is one of the longest lasting. Ancient Rome lasted a whopping 2,214 years!

5. Mongols

The Mongol Empire existed in the 13th and 14th centuries AD and was the largest land empire in human history. The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of the Mongol and Turkic tribes under the leadership of Genghis Khan. The Mongols were considered barbarians and savages. Throughout Europe and Asia they became famous for horse riding and archery. They were highly disciplined. They used a composite bow and wielded spears and sabers. They were masters of psychological warfare and built the second largest empire (after the British). It all started with the fact that Genghis Khan vowed in his youth to take over the whole world. He almost did it. He then set his sights on China and the rest is history. During the invasion of India, they built a pyramid in front of the walls of Delhi from human heads. They, like the Celts, had a clause about severed heads. The Mongols loved to collect them and catapult them into the enemy camp. They did the same with plague corpses. When the Mongols came across pregnant women, they did... things we won't discuss here.

Communism is responsible for millions of deaths. Stalin killed 10-60 million people. The Soviet Union was probably one of the greatest enemies of the United States. The ideology of general fear.

3. Celts

The Celts lived in lands from the British Isles to Galatia. The Celts came into contact with the cultures of multiple neighbors, and yet there is no written mention of them. The Celts had a reputation as headhunters. Many Celts fought completely naked and were famous for their long swords. They cut off the heads of killed enemies and attached them to the necks of their horses. The Celts gave the bloody trophies to the servants and sang hymns. They embalmed the heads of their most prominent enemies and kept them to be proud of. Like, instead of a bag of gold, we got absolute victory and the head of the enemy. They are the third among the most brutal ancient warriors and civilizations of the world.

2. Aztecs

The Aztecs were an ethnic group in Mexico who spoke the Nahuatl language (14th-16th centuries). They had a complex theocracy. The Aztecs made human sacrifices. Cannibalism was also encouraged. 20,000 people were killed a year to “make the gods happy.” The hearts of the victims were cut out and ceremonially eaten. Some were drowned, beheaded, burned or thrown from a height. And that's not the worst part. According to the rituals of the “rain god,” children were killed in different places so that their tears could cause rain. During a sacrifice to the “god of fire,” a couple of newlyweds were thrown into the fire. In the “corn goddess” ritual, virgins danced for 24 hours, then they were killed and skinned. Aztec priests then carried this skin with them. And at the coronation, Ahuizotl, one account says, killed 80,000 people to please his idols.

1. Nazi Germany

The most violent civilization in history. Nazi Germany (Third Reich) refers to Germany during the era when the country became a totalitarian state, under the rule of Adolf Hitler as leader of the German National Socialist Workers' Party until its destruction by Allied forces in May 1945. Despite its short duration, this civilization greatly influenced the world. Nazi Germany started the worst war in human history - World War II. At least 4 million people were killed during the Holocaust. The Nazi swastika is perhaps the most hated symbol in the world. Nazi Germany owned approximately 268,829 square miles of land. Hitler was one of the most powerful people in the history of the world, and his empire was certainly the most terrible.

The great empires of the distant past knew only one path of development. In those days, political disagreements were resolved very simply: whoever is stronger is right. But military expansion could not be based solely on numerical superiority - tactics, strategy, professional soldiers and a strong leader were integral to successful wars of conquest. Before you are several of the most powerful armies of the ancient world, led by brilliant commanders who were far ahead of their time.

• Ancient Egypt

  By the reign of Ramses II (1250 BC), Egypt had the largest army in the world. The Empire could field about a hundred thousand soldiers on the battlefield. Light war chariots complemented the infantry, turning the Egyptian army into a real killing machine. The millstones of this thresher were easily ground by the hordes of Hittites who risked encroaching on the power of the great pharaoh.




Persian Empire

Cyrus II, also known as Cyrus the Great, devoted all the resources of the Persian Empire to constant expansion, creating one of the greatest armies of all time, and the military training of the Persians was also at the highest level, which was noted even by Greek military leaders.




Macedonia

Philip II became king of Macedonia in 359 BC. The Tsar initiated a series of military reforms, transforming the previously ineffective army into a formidable force. To begin with, the number of regular troops increased to 30,000 people, and special corps of engineers were introduced to work with siege equipment. Philip left his son, the great Alexander the Great, a professional, battle-hardened army, with the help of which he easily conquered almost half the world.




The Roman Empire

The glory of the Roman Empire was forged by the spears of legionnaires. The peak of Roman power began around 30 BC, when Emperor Augustus began restructuring his legions. He increased the number of soldiers in each of them to five thousand and in a short time collected as many as twenty-eight legions under his command. It is noteworthy that only a professional soldier could become a legionnaire, which made the army of Rome practically invincible. Already at the end of the reign of Augustus, by 14 BC, the size of the imperial army exceeded 250,000 thousand people.




Hun Empire

The Huns caused the Great Migration and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Led by Attila, once known as the “Scourge of God,” the Huns sacked and burned hundreds of cities. The Romans considered the nomads barbarians, but regardless of their lifestyle, Attila was an incredibly smart and cunning strategist with outstanding leadership qualities.




Righteous Caliphate

At the zenith of its power, the borders of the Righteous Caliphate covered more than 6 million square kilometers. The Middle East, North Africa, the Caucasus, Persia, Balochistan, the Mediterranean and the Iberian Peninsula were conquered in just twenty years. The army of the Caliphate grew with each new conquered people, and by 657 no enemy could cope with a hundred thousand army.




Mongol Empire

Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan's army was not overly large. The great military leader was indeed able to unite most of the nomadic tribes from the steppes of Central Asia, but the Mongol army always relied on superior tactics, high mobility and the ability to adapt as quickly as possible to any new situation.

The oldest armies in the world.
The Sumerians were the first... This mysterious people appeared in the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates at the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. The Sumerians gave humanity many truly great discoveries: the state, fortified cities, writing, schools, codes of laws, the wheel, irrigation agriculture - this is not a complete list of Sumerian innovations. The Sumerian city-states were located close to each other (at a distance of 30-40 km), and therefore territorial and property disputes inevitably arose between them. City governments were forced to acquire armies. Interstate wars and armies are also an invention of the Sumerians. The oldest military conflict known to historians occurred in the middle of the 4th millennium BC. e. between the Sumerian city-states of Kish and Uruk.

Very little is known about the weapons of the Sumerian warriors of that time. The epic text telling of the war between Kish and Uruk mentions battle axes, which were certainly made of copper. Undoubtedly, spears were used, the main weapon of the warriors of Mesopotamia, as well as slings (archaeologists have found cannonballs for slings from the Uruk period). Apparently, soon after the war with Kish, the ruler of Uruk surrounded his city with colossal fortress walls, the remains of which have recently been discovered by archaeologists.
Much more information about the weapons and organization of the Sumerian army has been preserved from the next, so-called Early Dynastic period (approximately 3000-2350 BC). At this time, one after another, the Sumerian cities of Ur, Lagash, Umma, Nippur and others rose and flourished. The role and power of the state apparatus sharply increased. The first standing armies appeared, at first very small, with only a few hundred soldiers.
Historians judge their weapons, structure and even combat tactics mainly from the few images that have come down to us, the main of which are the famous standard from Ur and the Stele of Vultures.
The Sumerian army of the early dynastic period consisted of three types of troops: heavy and light infantry and chariots. The main force of the army was heavy infantry, and the main offensive weapons were spears with copper tips. In pre-Sumerian times, stone or copper points were inserted into a wooden shaft with a wedge and secured with straps or ropes. This fastening quickly weakened and became loose; in addition, the shaft split and the tip could fall out at the most inopportune moment. The Sumerians improved the method of fastening the tip: they made several holes in its narrow base and secured it to the shaft with copper pins or rivets.

The heavy infantry attacked in tightly closed formation. In front, such a phalanx was covered by warriors with large rectangular shields. The shields were probably made of wood, covered with leather and additionally reinforced with copper plaques. The phalanx of Lagash, depicted on the Stele of Vultures, consisted of six rows of spear warriors in copper helmets, 9 people in a row, i.e. 54 warriors in total.
In the wars of the Early Dynastic period, light infantry, armed with javelins and clubs (and later battle axes), apparently did not play a major role. The highest achievement of Sumerian military technology and the main means of, if not extermination, then at least intimidation of the enemy, were undoubtedly the world's first war chariots. These were rather clumsy wooden carts on four wheels with a high protective wall in front, to which quivers for darts were attached. A pair of donkeys were harnessed to the chariot (the horse had not yet been domesticated), and two people stood in the cart: a driver and a warrior who fought with a long spear and threw darts. Driving a Sumerian chariot took a lot of work, and not only: the stubbornness of recently tamed steppe donkeys - onagers. The fact is that the wheels of the Sumerian battle carts were solid wooden circles, without spokes or rims, and were attached motionlessly. Therefore, the left and right wheels rotated at the same speed, and when turning, one of them always skidded and buried itself in the ground. Although this military equipment was not distinguished by maneuverability and speed, even such clumsy carts terrified enemies.

Historians believe that in combat conditions the ancient army could, while maintaining order, move in only one direction - forward. The Sumerians did not yet know how to set up ambushes or attack from the flanks. Or maybe they simply considered such tricks unworthy. That’s why the formation was covered with shields only in front.

Sumerian warriors were armed with copper (and later bronze) daggers and axes. In the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. BC, shortly after the invention of metal armor (cloaks with copper plates), battle axes changed noticeably: their blades became narrower and longer to cut through scale armor. Such axes, sometimes called “crow beaks,” were the most effective weapons in close combat, when the phalanx formation was destroyed and it became impossible to use spears. It is believed that the honor of inventing combat swords also belongs to the Sumerians. The first examples of these weapons were forged no later than the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. The most ancient swords had a rather strange curved shape, indicating that their ancestor was most likely a peasant sickle. At the beginning, such sickle-shaped swords, apparently, were only in service with the nobility and were used mainly for the execution of Prisoners.
A new type of army appeared during the reign of Sargon the Ancient in 2261. BC e.). The main force was mobile light infantry, operating in loose formation and including detachments of archers, spearmen and warriors with battle axes. Heavy, slow phalanxes and clumsy chariots were powerless against the rapid attacks of Sargon's light infantry, which flanked the enemy and showered him with clouds of arrows. Sargon, who became the world's first emperor, united the Northern and Southern Mesopotamia under his rule, and made the new city of Akkad the capital. He created the largest regular army at that time. Cuneiform chronicles report as something unheard of the size of his permanent army: warriors who always eat and sleep with their king - 5,400 people!

Times had changed, and now Mesopotamia was threatened by hordes of steppe nomads, their military art had advanced so much that the archaic Sumerian phalanxes could not ensure the safety of the gods. Sargon ruled the country for 55 years and fought 34 major battles. After his death, the Akkadian Empire did not last long; it was captured by the Kutian nomads.
On the ruins of the Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Two great powers emerged - Babylon in the south and Assyria in the north. For one and a half millennia, they challenged each other for dominance over Mesopotamia, and sometimes over the entire Middle East. In conditions of constant combat, military affairs developed rapidly. Even at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. e. in Mesopotamia there was a final transition from copper weapons to bronze (bronze was probably the first to be invented by the Sumerians), and by the end of the 2nd millennium iron weapons began to spread (at first only offensive; defensive means continued to be made from bronze for a long time). At the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. the inhabitants of Mesopotamia finally managed to tame horses, and they immediately began to be used in warfare. Chariots drawn by a pair, three or four horses were a much more formidable force than the Sumerian war carts. The chariots themselves also changed radically: they were now made not four-wheeled, but two-wheeled; the wheels (no longer solid, but with spokes and a rim) were movably attached to the axle, which significantly increased speed and maneuverability. The crew of the Assyrian war chariot consisted of four people: a driver, an archer and two shield bearers.
At the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Assyrians mastered horse riding and were the first to introduce cavalry into the army, armed with bows and darts. Stirrups were not yet known, and at first it was difficult for the riders to control both the horse and the weapon at the same time. The first cavalrymen needed the help of infantrymen: shield bearers held the horses by the bridle and covered the horsemen with shields while they shot or threw darts. Somewhat later, Assyrian horsemen learned to skillfully control a horse with their legs, which gave them the opportunity to do without infantry support. Cavalry was indispensable for pursuing defeated enemies.

In the first third of the 1st millennium BC. e., during the period of the highest prosperity of Assyria, the Assyrian army was by far the strongest in the world both in numbers, and in weapons, and in organization, and in military discipline. The army of Shalmaneser III in 845 BC. e. numbered 120,000 warriors - an unprecedented figure for that time. Assyria's military successes were facilitated by numerous innovations, such as cavalry, siege engines, and iron weapons. However, all these innovations were quickly adopted by their neighbors, including the Babylonians, although, unlike their northern neighbors, they did not introduce anything new into military science.

The sickle-shaped swords of the Assyrians were gradually replaced by shorter and straight ones, borrowed from the Western peoples - the Hittites and Achaeans

The Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III (744-727 BC) carried out a military reform, as a result of which the power of the Assyrian army reached its maximum. The basis of the army was the royal regiment - a standing army, which consisted of full royal support and was formed through recruitment (including from the poorest segments of the population). The army included seven main branches of the military. The elite of the army were charioteers, recruited from the nobility. The chariot carried from two to four people, one drove the horses, and the rest shot from bows, threw darts, fought with spears or held shields, shielding themselves and their comrades. For the first time, cavalry became a truly formidable striking force. The horsemen were dressed in bronze scale armor and armed not only with bows, but also with spears, axes, and swords. Heavy infantry in armor and pointed helmets fought with spears and short swords. Light infantry - archers, slingers and javelin throwers - fought without armor and often without helmets; The warriors were protected by special shield bearers, who blocked the shooters with high shields. The army also had
siege troops, reconnaissance and convoys.
Heavy infantry was usually formed in three ranks. The first row of spearmen was covered with huge, man-sized, trapezoidal shields, and the second and third rows were covered with lighter and more convenient round shields. Light infantry could act independently of other branches of the army, sometimes forming a single formation to repel attacks by enemy infantry and chariots, and sometimes scattering. The first row consisted of shield bearers (they could also throw darts), behind them were archers in three rows, and behind them all were slingers, whose actions required a lot of free space. The slingers fired over the heads of their comrades.
A powerful, combat-ready army allowed the Assyrian kings to extend their power to all of Western Asia. However, at the end of the 7th century. BC e. the greatest of the empires of the Ancient world collapsed under the blows of numerous enemies - the Babylonians and the Medes.

Weapons that were used for ritual purposes were called sacred or priestly. In ancient times, such weapons were considered as a manifestation of the deity, its symbolic essence. The sacred weapon was considered the body of the deity, and the sacraments performed with its help reflected the mystical life of the deity.
The cults associated with sacred weapons varied, but they were all united by the difference between sacred weapons and military weapons, as well as the need for initiation and inauguration of their bearers. Almost every nation had ritual weapons, but not always sacred ones. It was distinguished by the fact that it either carried a divine particle within it, or came from the gods to people.
Each sacred weapon had its own destiny, connected with the priest-carrier, with his life and death, and with the revival of the cult. Violation of cult rituals entailed a violation of the mystical body of the deity, his metaphysical embodiment, and could lead to unpredictable consequences.
The production of sacred weapons was accompanied by a special ritual. Moreover, each cult had its own methods of uniting the bearer with the weapon. For example, when forging a blade for the cults of cats (lions, leopards, panthers, etc.), the blood of a priest from a cut on his hand was forged into it, and the cut was cauterized with a hot blade. In this way, the blood brotherhood of weapon and priest was achieved, since, according to beliefs, the weapon itself was originally forged from the blood of a god. When the sacred blade “death” (blade fractured), the bearer accepted a fragment of the blade into his chest, giving the blade the opportunity to be reborn in twinning with a new priest. It was believed that during reforging, the souls of its bearers entered into the sacred sword in order to be reborn again and again in the blade.
In the “royal” burial of Ur, dating back to the 3rd millennium BC. e., along with other precious objects, a magnificent dagger was discovered. It is difficult to say whether this was the burial of a lugal (leader), one of the ensi (high priests) or an even (builder priest), but there is no doubt that the dagger was a cult one, because it was made of gold and lapis lazuli.
Sumer did not have its own gold, so the precious metal was dedicated only to the gods, and products were made from it only for gods and temples. The handle of the dagger is made of lapis lazuli - a stone “pleasing to the deities” and having a symbolic and sacred meaning.
The moon god Nanna was revered as the supreme deity in Ur. His cult was associated with the movement of the Moon across the starry sky: at night the deity traveled across the sky on his barge, and during the day through the country of his ancestors. The priests and priestesses of the lunar deity predicted and calculated lunar eclipses, which was very important, because the ebb and flow of tides, which influenced commercial shipping, depended on the phases of the Moon.
Nanna was considered the lord of oracles, and his priests told fortunes for all of Sumer using the liver, heart, lungs and other entrails of sacrificial animals. For predictions and feeding, deities and priests always cut animals with a sacred dagger. The complex ritual was accompanied by the smoking of incense and the libation of sacrificial water, oil, beer, and wine. To the sounds of lyres, harps, cymbals and tambourines, prayers were offered for the well-being of the donor. The priests in charge of the ritual knew what foods and drinks were pleasing to the gods, what could be considered “clean” and what was “unclean.” The more generous the gifts, the more solemn the ceremony became.
In the “sacred marriage” ritual, held during the spring equinox, the lugal’s wife, who bore the title “en,” stabbed a sacrificial bull, a yak, dedicated to the lunar Nanna, with a sacred golden dagger, and the lugal predicted by its entrails. The blood of the sacrificial bull once again watered Nanna's garden.
By the 26th century BC. e. Semitic shepherd tribes of the Chaldeans came to Sumer.
The "sacred marriage" ritual was no longer performed. The rituals were not performed, and the gods left Sumer. Having taken sacred objects to the land of their ancestors, the priests completed the service of the cult on this land. Their time is up. The sacred weapon was buried along with its servants.

Armies (from the Latin word arma - weapon) appeared in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e. with the emergence of ancient slave states (Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, Urartu, India, China, etc.). They were one of the most important institutions of state power and were called upon to carry out both external and internal functions of the state. The external functions of the army consisted of achieving, by force, the foreign policy goals that the state set for itself. Internal functions were reduced to preserving, strengthening and protecting, when the need arose, the foundations of the existing state system.

In recruiting the armies of various states of the ancient world there were many peculiarities unique to them. However, the most typical for most of them, especially for the armies of large slave states, were the following recruitment methods. The combination of permanent detachments with militia is a system characteristic of the period of the formation of slave states. The core of the army usually consisted of permanent detachments created by representatives of the emerging tribal nobility. During the war, these detachments were reinforced by a militia of communal peasants. The caste system was especially developed in the states of the ancient East (Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, India, etc.). Their armies consisted of professional warriors who served for life and passed on their profession by inheritance (warrior caste). They constituted the second dominant caste in the state (after the caste of priests). The militia system took place during the heyday of the slave system. This term comes from the Latin word t//N/a - army. The essence of this system was that every citizen of the country, receiving military training in his youth, was considered liable for military service until old age (in ancient Greece - from 18 to 60 years, in ancient Rome - from 17 to 50 years). If necessary, he could be drafted into the army at any time. In its composition, such an army was a typical slave-owning militia. The mercenary system of staffing the army with professional warriors first developed in the states of ancient Greece in the 4th century. BC e. In the II century. BC e. Ancient Rome also passed on to it. The essence of this system was that the state, for a certain fee, hired soldiers who considered military service as their main profession.

The mercenary armies were recruited from the poorest strata of the population, declassed elements, freedmen, and also from foreign (“barbarian”) tribes. Recruiting the army of Ancient Rome with foreigners invited to serve became most widespread during the decline of the Roman Empire. During this period, when the slave-owning class began to increasingly pay off the “blood tax” (i.e., from military service), mercenaryism became the main system of recruiting troops.
The armament of the slave armies consisted of various types of bladed weapons. For hand-to-hand combat, spears, swords, battle axes, and daggers were used, and to defeat the enemy at short distances, bows and arrows, darts, and slings were used. Shields, armor, armor, and helmets, which were made of wood, thick leather, felt and metal, were used as protective equipment. During the siege of fortresses, rams and throwing mechanisms were used - catapults, ballistas, onagers, which threw heavy (up to 500 kg) stones, barrels of burning tar and large arrows over several hundred meters (up to 1 km). Siege technology received great development at the final stage of the slave system, especially among the Romans.
Under the slave system, the foundations of the organizational structure of the armed forces were formed for the first time. They were divided into a land army and a navy. The army, in turn, formed two types of troops - infantry and cavalry. At the same time, the beginnings of engineering troops and logistics services appeared. Initial forms of tactical organization of troops also emerged. The organizational structure of armies reached its greatest perfection in Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, and Ancient China.
The main organizational unit in the armies of the ancient Greek states (polises) was the phalanx. It included heavily armed infantry (hoplites), armed with a long (3-6 m) heavy spear, a short sword and metal protective equipment. The number of the phalanx reached 8 - 16 thousand people, and sometimes more. Light infantry, armed with throwing weapons and having light protective equipment, as well as cavalry, were reduced to units that did not have a constant number. They were located, as a rule, in front of the battle formation or on the flanks. The Macedonian army had a more harmonious organization, which included permanent units and subunits (loch - 16 people, syntagma - 256 people, small phalanx - 4096 people).
In the Roman army, the main organizational unit was the legion. In the 3rd century. BC e. the legion was divided into 30 maniples (20 maniples of 120 people and 10 maniples of 60 people). The legion's cavalry consisted of 10 tours of 30 horsemen each. At the end of the 2nd century. BC e. the legion began to be divided into 10 cohorts of 360-600 people each. The cohort consisted of 3 maniples. It was no longer only an organizational, but also a tactical unit, capable of independently solving various combat missions. At the same time, the prototype of headquarters as troop command and control bodies was born. This was the commander's retinue, whose members helped him lead his troops during preparation and during the battle.

2. ART OF MILITARY

During the wars of the slave society, strategy and tactics developed. Strategy constituted the highest area of ​​military art. Based on the political goals and capabilities of the state, it included issues of preparation and conduct of war. Although the strategic capabilities of the slave-holding armies were limited, even then the strategy solved the problems of building armed forces, their use in war, determined the goals and the most appropriate types of military actions, the directions for concentrating the main efforts in the war, and the methods of interaction between the army and the navy. In an effort to reliably provide their rear, the commanders of the slave armies prepared the basis for waging war, comprehensively studied the enemy, and sought out allies.

It is known, for example, that the command of the ancient Chinese and Assyrian troops usually had detailed information about the internal and external position of the enemy. It was in China and Assyria that the system of organizing human intelligence first emerged. To obtain data, scouts were sent to the territory of neighboring tribes and nationalities. In their reports, they reported on the aggravation of certain internal contradictions, on military activities, defensive structures, food supplies, the combat effectiveness of troops, roads and river crossings.
During the wars of the era of slave society, various types and methods of action were used - offensive, defensive, retreat, guerrilla warfare. The offensive was considered the main type of military action taken to achieve victory over the enemy. Defense was used to repel enemy attacks.
In order to ensure the security of their country and consolidate the conquered territories, troops were stationed in the most important areas, fortresses were erected, and fortification lines were built. With the development of large slave states (ancient Macedonia, Carthage, ancient Rome), which had significant economic and human resources, the duration of wars and their intensity increased sharply. Examples include the Greco-Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War, which lasted intermittently for several decades, and the Punic Wars between Carthage and Ancient Rome, which lasted intermittently for about 120 years. Alexander the Great's campaign to the East lasted ten years.
Tactics considered the issues of preparation and conduct of combat (battle). Tactics in the ancient world was closely related to strategy, since in most battles tactical and strategic tasks were solved simultaneously, which predetermined the outcome of a campaign or war. The battle was a hand-to-hand combat of warriors armed with melee weapons on unequipped terrain or using specially built fortifications. The methods of warfare by slave armies took shape and developed as the quality of weapons improved, the number of troops grew, and their combat skills increased.
The armies of the Ancient East were characterized by the simplest formations, which included separate detachments of infantry and cavalry. They did not yet know a clear battle order and usually fought in large, disorganized and poorly organized masses. In most cases, the battle was fought by archers and slingers. Sometimes war chariots were used. The outcome of the battle was decided in hand-to-hand combat of the main forces. Troop control was carried out through commands transmitted by voice, visual and sound signals, as well as through messengers. The ancient Chinese, for example, developed a control system using drums, gongs, banners and badges. The last two served to transmit commands to reorganize troops.

In the armies of the ancient Greek states, on the basis of qualitative improvements in weapons and increased combat training of troops, methods of organizing and conducting combat received significant development. The basis of their battle formation was the phalanx - a deep (from 8-16 to 40 ranks) linear formation of heavily armed infantry. Each rank consisted of 500-1000, and sometimes more, warriors who stood in line shoulder to shoulder.
From the front, the phalanx was almost invulnerable. The closed shields and forward spears of the hoplites created the impression of an impregnable wall bristling with spears. The distance between the ranks during an attack was 1 m, and when repelling an enemy attack - 0,5 m. The strength of the phalanx lay in the cohesion and solidity of its formation, the powerful onslaught and the great force of the initial blow. However, the phalanx also had many disadvantages. She could only operate on flat, open terrain. Its movement pattern was easily disrupted, and it was quite difficult to restore it; maneuver is almost impossible; flanks and rear are open; there was no reserve for developing success in battle. In addition, the phalanx could not pursue pursuit outside the battlefield. Detachments of light infantry and cavalry were supposed to compensate for these shortcomings. Their task was to cover the flanks and rear of the phalanx, initiate a battle, conduct pursuit and ensure withdrawal.
In general, the superiority of phalanx tactics over the tactics of other armies of the time was undeniable. A classic example where the strengths and weaknesses of the phalanx were clearly revealed is the battle of Marathon (490 BC). In it, the 11,000-strong Athenian army under the command of Miltiades, acting in phalanx formation, overthrew the Persian forces twice as large with one powerful blow. However, being unable to pursue, the phalanx was unable to build on its success. This made it possible for the defeated enemy to hastily retreat and avoid complete destruction.

During long wars, the ancient Greek armies accumulated extensive combat experience. Their weapons and tactics continued to improve. At the end of the 5th century. BC e. A new type of infantry appeared - peltasts (medium-armed infantry), who were armed with long spears, swords, darts and light protective equipment. This infantry could fight both in phalanx formations and in dismembered formations, operate on rough terrain, maneuver on the battlefield, and at the right moment concentrate forces on a decisive area.
The capabilities of the new troops were brilliantly realized by the famous Greek commander Epaminondas during the Boeotian War (378-362 BC). In the battle of Leuktra (371 BC), the Theban army of Epaminondas (about 6 thousand hoplites and 1,5 thousand horsemen) met with the Spartan army under the command of King Cleombrotus (10 thousand hoplites and 1 thousand horsemen). Both armies had the typical battle formation for that time - the phalanx. However, this time Epaminondas abandoned the uniform distribution of forces along the front and, by reducing the depth of the phalanx, concentrated a strike force of 1 on the left flank ,5 thousand of the best warriors, built in a column 48 ranks deep. Her blow broke through the front of the hitherto invincible Spartan phalanx, which decided the outcome of the battle. The Thebans won a complete and decisive victory. The great tactical principle discovered by Epaminondas to this day determines the outcome of almost all decisive battles: the uneven distribution of troops along the front in order to concentrate forces for the main blow in the decisive sector.
This tactical principle was further developed in the wars waged by Alexander the Great in 334-324 BC. e., which was largely facilitated by the presence of strong cavalry in the Macedonian army. An analysis of numerous battles shows that Alexander always placed a phalanx in the center of his battle formation, and on one of the flanks (depending on the situation) he created a strike force consisting of cavalry and medium infantry. Having pinned down the enemy from the front, he usually struck with a strike group at the flank and rear of the main enemy forces, defeated them, and then pursued them until complete destruction. Thus, the ideas of Epaminondas were developed in the Macedonian army to a combined combination of the actions of two types of troops - infantry and cavalry. The great commander demonstrated brilliant examples of new tactics in the battles of Gaugamela (331 BC), on the Hydaspes River (326 BC) and others.
The military art of ancient Rome and Carthage reached an even higher level. In the 4th century. BC e. The Romans abandoned the phalanx and switched to battle formations divided along the front and in depth (manipular battle formation). The legion became the main tactical unit. From the 3rd century. BC e. its battle formation consisted of 3 lines of 10 maniples each. for battle, maniples were built at intervals equal to the length of their front (up to 20 m), located in a checkerboard pattern. the distance between the lines was up to 90 m. The legion operated on a front of 600-800 m. It was covered by light infantry from the front and cavalry from the flanks. The division of the legion into maniples significantly increased its combat capabilities. He could fight on rough terrain, maneuver, build up efforts from the depths, and conduct pursuit. Thanks to this, the new formation was superior to the phalanx in all respects.
The 2nd Punic War (218-201 BC) left a noticeable mark on the history of military art. During its course, the Carthaginian army under the command of Hannibal, having crossed the Alps, invaded Italy and inflicted a series of defeats on the Romans. August 2, 216 BC e. near the town of Cannes a battle took place between the Roman (86 thousand people) and the Carthaginian (50 thousand people) armies.

The commander of the Roman army, Consul T. Varro, abandoned the tried-and-tested manipulative battle formation, deciding to defeat the enemy with one powerful frontal blow from closely knit masses of infantry. He built the legions in a dense and deep (36 ranks) battle formation, occupying 2 km along the front. Light infantry (8 thousand people) acted in front, and cavalry (6 thousand people) on the flanks. Consequently, the Roman army practically returned to the obsolete phalanx formation, having lost the ability to maneuver. Hannibal built his battle formation in the shape of a horseshoe, with its convex side facing the enemy. In the center there was infantry (up to 20 thousand people), built in 10 ranks, and on the flanks, with a step back, there were shock groups of selected infantry of 6 thousand people each and cavalry (10 thousand people). Light infantry (8 thousand people) covered the front of the army, hiding its formation from the Romans.
When the battle began, the heavy mass of the Roman legions pressed the Carthaginian center, but were unable to break through it. Meanwhile, Hannibal's strong flanking groups reached the exposed flanks of the Romans, and his cavalry, having defeated the Roman cavalry, attacked them from the rear. As a result of Hannibal's skillful double-sided envelopment, the Roman army was surrounded. The Roman legions, squeezed into a limited space, were destroyed by the end of the day. 48 thousand Romans fell on the battlefield, up to 10 thousand people were taken prisoner. The losses of the Carthaginian army amounted to about a thousand people killed. For many centuries, the Battle of Cannae served as a classic example of the encirclement and destruction of a numerically superior enemy army.

Further improvement of the tactics of the Roman army is associated with the emergence of a cohort battle order.
The increased combat capabilities of the legion in the middle of the 1st century. BC e. skillfully used by the outstanding Roman commander Julius Caesar. By allocating part of his forces to reserve (this was a new phenomenon in the art of war) and introducing them into battle in a timely manner, he invariably achieved victory in numerous battles. A typical example is the battle of Pharsalus (48 BC).

With the beginning of a new era, the art of war began to decline in the Roman army. It was caused by the decomposition of the slave system and the transition to recruiting legions with foreign mercenaries, which sharply reduced their combat capabilities. In the end, any difference in equipment and weapons disappeared between the Romans and the barbarians, and the latter, more physically and mentally tougher, surpassed the demoralized Roman legions. In the 5th century The slave-owning Roman Empire collapsed as a result of slave uprisings and invasions of barbarian peoples. The slave system was replaced by a feudal system.
The art of military engineering originated in slaveholding states. It was reflected in fortress construction, which reached a fairly high level of development back in Babylon and ancient Egypt. Ancient China provides an example of the creation of the greatest military engineering structure of antiquity - the Great Wall of China, which was a complex complex of defensive structures. The art of military engineering reached its highest peak in the ancient Greek and Roman armies. They knew how to quickly build fortified camps, lay siege to fortresses, overcome water barriers, build field and fortress defensive structures, engineering barriers, bridges and roads.
Thus, the military art of a slave-owning society constitutes the first, initial stage in the history of military art. In the ancient world, armed forces arose, consisting of a land army and a navy. The first types of troops appeared. Simultaneously with the formation of armies, the need arose to create organs and means of control, since organized actions of troops were unthinkable without a single leadership. However, for a long time, command and control of troops was characterized by simplicity: military leaders (commanders) usually controlled troops by directly issuing commands and personal example. As military art improved and combat experience was gained, auxiliary governing bodies began to be created under military leaders in the form of a service of advisers (retinue) and orderlies.
With the formation of large slave states, which had significant military-economic resources for that time, an increase in the number of armed forces and the gradual improvement of means of armed struggle, the scope of military operations increased. Are born and receive
development of various ways of fighting and fighting. From the simplest
attacks of disorganized, poorly organized units through tactics
monolithic structures, slave armies came to
formations dissected along the front and in depth with uneven
distribution of forces, skillful tactical maneuver, separation
and skillful use of reserves. Such methods of conducting
combat, a great expert on the history of military art, F. Engels
rated as the most advanced system of infantry tactics in an era that did not know firearms. Used in this era
methods of warfare and combat were determined by the conditions of development
productive forces and the social structure of society. Already
it clearly became clear that the course and outcome of the war was to a decisive extent
depend on the economic capabilities of the state, combat readiness
the strength of its armed forces, the morale of the people and the army.

Scheme:

(Based on materials from the textbook “History of Military Art”, Moscow, Military Publishing House, 2006, Team of authors)